UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


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THE 


CLAIMS 


EXAMINED    AND 


REFUTED    BY    ARGUMENf. 


THE     CONFESSIONS   OF   SCHOLARS. 


BY  "RUMFORD." 

•  •*••  I  «  >  J  g  <  4         1  u 

•  )J    1     •    o        <  J    "      »V...  »  »       )  o     1 

.        J        J  '        1  1  J  '        >      •>  >      .'   J 

,  .      ,      ,   .  -      ,  -  c  .    „  o     J 


BOSTON  : 
PRINTED  BY  MUNROE  AND  FRANCIS,  4  CORNHJIX 


AUGUST,    1824. 


2*4*     § 


CONTENTS. 

Chap.       I.      Presumptions  and  arguments  in  favour  of  the  languages. 
Chap.      II.      On  the  languages  as  regards  the  use  of  English  words. 

Chap.    Ill as  regards  English  Grammar. 

Chap.    IV as  regards  style. 

Chap.      V as  a  source  of  knowledge. 

Chap.    VI.     .     .     .     .     .     .    as  a  mental  exercise. 

Chap.  VII as  a  resource,  and  a  help  to  modern 

tongues. 

Chap.  VIII as  regards  the  professions. 

Chap.    IX.     Some  account  of  ancient  prosody,  so  called. 
Chap.      X.     Concluding  remarks. 
Appendix,  containing  Notes  and  extracts. 


Stack 
Annex 


PREFACE. 


I 

/  0  0 


In  the  all  important  concerns  of  education,  the  prevailing 
scheme  of  study,  both  here  and  in  Europe,  appears  to  involve 
a  species  and  a  degree  of  inconsistency  wholly  unaccount- 
£  able. 

£       During  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  while  Grecian  philoso- 
>.  phy  was  in   vogue,  the  reign    of   error  was   indeed,  beyond 
%  measure,  more   extensive  ;    but  it  was  more  consistent — Prin- 
m  ciple  and   practice  went  together — The  dogmas   of  Aristotle 
^>  passing  then  for  the  first  principles  of  science,  the  empire  of 
authority  was   universal  ;    and   mental  subjugation,  as  it  was 
unfelt,  was  unsuspected.     The  attention  then  paid  to  ancient 
a  language,  as  the  natural  avenue  to  ancient  wisdom,  was  but  a 
■£  part   of  the  general  delusion  and  harmonized  with  it.     In  the 
2  system  as  a  whole,  however  erroneous,  there  was  a  congruity 
£  and  a  fitness  well  calculated  both  to  dazzle  and  deceive  ;  and 
it  did  deceive  for  many  a  generation.     But  what  is  the  state 
of  things  in  our  day  ? — Ancient  philosophy  is  altogether  ex- 
ploded.    In  no  one  department  of  science,  physical  or  meta- 
physical, political  or  moral,  are  the  ancients  looked  up  to  as 
suitable  guides.     Their  principles,  it  is  true,  were  not  invaria- 
ble wrong,  and  their  doctrines  often  were  accidentally  right ; 
but  their  general  theories,  on  all  subjects,  have  long  been  re- 
nounced by  common  consent,  as  being  either  visionary,  or  in- 
adequate, or  ill  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  world  as  we  now 
find  it. 

Nor  is  this  any  disparagement  to  those  who  were  called  to 
think  and  act  at  earlier  periods.  When  the  progress  of 
knowledge  is  recorded,  though  but  imperfectly,  each  generation 
begins  its  career  with  better  helps — it  takes  its  departure  from 
a  more  advanced  point — and  as  this  process  has  been  going  on 
ever  since  the  art  of  writing  was  first  invented,  more  especial- 
ly since  the  art  of  printing,  the  present  race  of  men  must  pos- 
sess by  many  degrees  a  larger  fund  of  intelligence  than  their 
remote  ancestors,  though  nowise  superior  perhaps  by  nature. 
To  travel  over  the  ground  of  ancient  learning  does  really  seem 
then  like  going  over  our  alphabet  at  the  age  of  manhood. 

397485 


9  1'UEFACE. 

The  most  passionate  admirer  of  antiquity  cannot  deny  that 
in  our  day  knowledge  is  incomparably  more  accurate,  more 
extensive,  and  what  is  better  still,  of  a  more  practical  char- 
acter. Starting  as  it  does  from  observation  and  experi- 
ment instead  of  speculation  and  conjecture,  it  rests  on  a  more 
substantial  foundation — Hence  men  deceive  themselves  much 
less.  What  now  passes  for  knowledge,  is,  in  a  far  greater 
proportion  than  formerly,  really  such.  Not  that  the  world  is 
free  from  doubt  and  hypothesis,  for  of  these  there  is  yet 
abundance  and  always  will  be.  Nor  are  the  minds  of  men 
exempt  from  delusion  ;  for  though  less  frequent,  it  is  in  some 
cases  quite  as  predominant.  Of  this,  the  actual  state  of  edu- 
cation is  at  once  the  most  striking  example,  and  the  most  effi- 
cient cause.  What  greater  infatuation  can  be  imagined  than 
that  of  retaining  the  languages  as  an  indispensable  branch  of 
education,  at  a  time  when  every  thing  they  exclusively  con- 
tain is  admitted  to  have  lost  its  value.  Yet  at  this  very  day 
the  dialects  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  taught  with  scarcely  less 
enthusiasm  than  at  the  period  when  they  were  believed  to  be 
the  only  possible  source  of  information.  Classical  partialities, 
for  many  years  expelled  our  halls  of  science,  still  loiter  in  our 
schools.  Homer  and  Virgil,  Plato  and  Cicero  are  still  the 
charm — still  the  precious  rosary,  by  which  every  youthful  as- 
pirant is  taught  to  count  his  lessons,  and  appreciate  his  mental 
stock.  And  worst  of  all,  ancient  Prosody,  that  farce  of  far- 
ces, still  wins  the  prize.  Now  here,  if  I  mistake  not,  is  a  force 
of  delusion  unmatched  by  any  thing  even  of  the  I6th  centu- 
ry— an  incongruity  which  no  past  age  could  equal,  and  no  fu- 
ture perhaps  ever  believe. 

From  a  train  of  reflections  similar  to  the  foregoing,  the  au- 
thor of  the  following  pages  was  long  ago  persuaded  that  the 
dead  languages  were  far  from  meriting,  and  far  from  compen- 
sating, the  time,  the  attention,  or  the  expence  now  bestowed 
on  them.  The  arguments  used  in  their  behalf  he  was  con- 
vinced must  be  fallacious.  These  impressions,  so  far  from 
having  abated  by  any  thing  he  has  since  heard,  or  seen,  or 
read,  have  gained  new  force  in  all  respects. 

With  a  view  of  bringing  the  matter  into  discussion,  the 
greater  portion  of  what  is  here  contained  was  published  last 
autumn  under  the  form  of  Essays,  in  the  Boston  Centinel ; 
hoping  by  that  means  to  draw  from  those,  who  seem  governed 
by  a  contrary  persuasion,  a  lucid,  methodical  and  argumenta- 
tive exposition  of  the  subject  as  viewed  on  their  side.  But 
this  expectation  was  not  realized.      A  defence  of  the  reign- 


PREEACE.  5 

ing  system  was  indeed  commenced  by  two  writers  in  two  dif- 
ferent papers,  but  soon  abandoned  ;  though  not  without  an 
eloquent  appeal,  on  the  part  of  one,  to  the  official  guardians 
of  ancient  learning,  to  take  up  its  defence,  and  rescue  it  from 
so  awkward  a  posture— yet  nothing  more  has  appeared.* 

The  object  in  now  publishing  the  substance  of  those  papers 
under  a  new  form,  with  some  additions,  is  to  avail  of  a  differ- 
ent path  of  circulation,  and  thus  give  the  argument  a  greater 
chance  of  being  fully  refuted,  if  it  merits  such  a  fate  ;  or  being 
more  read  and  reflected  upon,  should  it  deserve  a  better. — 
One  chance  especially  it  may  have  in  its  present  shape,  which 
is  that  of  being  handled  by  our  periodical  writers  ;  and  this 
perhaps  would  be  as  good  a  way  as  any  of  bringing  the  mat- 
ter fairly  into  debate.  The  habits,  talents,  and  turn  of  thought, 
among  this  class  of  writers,  render  them  perfectly  ctufuit,  on 
such  questions  ;  and  if  the  case  be  manageable,  they  will  net 
wait  long  for  an  invitation. 

But  however  well,  or  however  ill,  the  course  of  reasoning 
here  pursued  may  pass  the  ordeal  of  public  judgment,  to 
apologize  for  inviting  attention  to  this  or  any  other  topic  of 
general  interest,  would  be  almost  an  insult  to  the  spirit  of  the 
age.  It  is  our  good  fortune  to  live  in  times,  when  nothing  is 
held  too  sacred  to  be  brought  to  the  test  of  reason  ;  and  truth 
may  be  followed  in  any  direction,  without  stopping  to  inquire 
through  whose  fields  it  might  lead  us.  If  any  one  perceives,  or 
thinks  he  perceives,  either  a  latent  defect  or  a  pernicious  ten- 
dency in  prevailing  habits,  customs,  or  modes  of  thinking,  he 
is  at  least  justified,  perhaps  in  some  measure  obligated,  to  state 
his  argument,  and  submit  the  case  to  the  decision  of  others. 
I  am  aware  however  that  there  are  some  prejudices  too  dear 
to  be  abandoned  without  a  sigh  ;  and  persons  maybe  imagined 
so  peculiarly  .situated  that  the  stronger  the  argument,  the  less 
welcome  the  doctrine  ;  yet  whoever  might  attempt  to  excite 
alarm  at  the  consequences,  would  show  by  that  very  attempt 
that  he  lives  at  least  half  a  century  too  late. 

Education,  considered  in  all  its  influences,  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  subject,  next  to  religion,  that  can  occupy  the 
human  mind  ;  being  in  some  sort  the  basis,  the  substratum  of 
that  whole  mass  of  habits,  feelings,  and  opinions,  which  go  to 
constitute  character,  as  well  national  as  individual.  And  yet7 
it  is  made  the  subject  of  mature  reflection  with  very  few — 
though   often  a  casual  topic  of  conversation.     It  is  but  too 

The  reader  may  see  an  extract  from  this  appeal  in  the  Appemliv 


6  I'll  E  FACE. 

common  a  failing  among  parents,  even  intelligent  parents,  to 
distrust  their  own  ability  to  judge  of  the  proper  objects  of 
study,  especially  as  regards  the  languages.  Nine  out  of  ten 
may  perhaps  be  truly  said  to  have  no  independent  opinion  of 
their  own,  deduced  from  data  and  reasonings  of  their  own. — 
From  this  cause  chiefly,  aided  however  by  others,  the  whole 
management  of  school  affairs  has  long  been  in  the  hands  of 
certain  classes  of  men,  respectable  unquestionably,  and  well 
informed — but  still,  men  whose  partialities  have  in  some  meas- 
ure become  fixed  by  their  own  early  studies,  and  by  subse- 
quent habits — a  good  portion  of  whom  being  also  in  office  un- 
der the  system,  may  well  be  content  to  keep  things  as  they 
are. 

With  regard  to  the  importance  of  the  dead  languages,  faith 
has  floated  long  enough  on  loose  unscrutinized  assumptions, — 
those  therefore  by  whose  patronage  they  are  upheld  may  now 
very  reasonably  be  called  upon  for  a  systematic  justification 
of  this  sort  of  study,  in  the  manner  and  extent  now  practised. 
If  it  can  be  defended,  they  will  rejoice  in  any  opportunity, 
however  presented,  for  removing  the  doubts  of  others — doubts 
they  may  be  assured  much  oftener  concealed  than  expressed 
— At  all  events,  the  cause  can  never  suffer  for  want  of  cham- 
pions— there  are  pens  enough  in  its  service,  and  good  will 
enough. 

To  me,  however,  the  system  appears  wholly  indefensible  ; 
and  I  have  little  doubt  of  satisfying  every  attentive  reader 
that  at  any  rate  the  common  grounds  of  defence  will  not 
avail.  The  chief  embarrassment  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject— wholly  incapable  of  being  disposed  of  briefly,  yet  too 
little  attractive  to  sustain  attention — at  least  without  other 
graces  than  are  at  my  command.  But  when  it  is  considered 
what  enormous  sums  of  money,  to  say  nothing  of  the  much 
greater  value  of  time,  are  constantly  and  often  inconveniently 
lavished  on  Greek  and  Latin,  it  may  be  hoped  that  parents, 
if  no  others,  will  listen  with  some  degree  of  patience  to  an  at- 
tempt to  prove  (what  is  seriously  believed  the  truth)  that  all 
this  may  be  saved  without  any  disadvantage  to  their  children, 
nay,  with  a  positive  benefit  to  them. 

The  reader  may  be  assured,  if  that  will  be  any  comfort  to 
him,  that  a  learned  disquisition  is  not  to  be  aimed  at,  and  for  a 
very  good  reason,  as  he  may  guess  ;  but  so  far  is  it  from  being 
needful,  the  subject  is  already  not  a  little  obscured  hy  the  mist 
of  erudition.  The  endeavour  will  be  to  disperse  the  mist,  and 
make  the  matter  intelligible  to  plain  unlettered  common  sense. 


PREFACE.  7 

Classical  men,  it  may  be  feared,  will  be  disappointed  in  every 
way — no  flowers  of  rhetoric — no  sprigs  of  classical  allusion — 
and  not  a  single  line  in  compliment  to  ancient  learning — but 
as  to  novelty,  they  will  find  one  kind  of  it  abundant  enough — 
opinions,  reasonings  and  quotations  will  be  of  quite  another 
complexion  to  what  they  are  accustomed.  It  is  not  conceded 
however,  that  scholars  are  at  all  more  likely  to  form  a  correct 
judgment  on  such  topics,  than  any  other  intelligent  men  who 
may  choose  to  investigate  for  themselves,  and  draw  their  own 
conclusions. — One  of  the  best  vouchers  for  correctness  of 
opinion  is  freedom  from  all  previous  bias,  in  which  respect 
other  men  have  greatly  the  advantage — and  if  the  reflecting 
portion  of  the  community  could  once  be  prevailed  upon  to 
think  really  for  themselves  in  these  matters,  I  am  inclined  to 
believe  that  many  academic  notions,  now  current,  would  soon 
lose  their  effect. 

Indeed,  to  take  things  even  as  we  find  them,  the  classical 
scheme  may  be  said  to  rest  quite  as  much  on  fashion  as  on 
any  settled  persuasion  of  its  benefit. — "  It  is  surprising  (says 
Dr.  Gilchrist  in  his  book  on  Etymolgy)  that  so  few  have  per- 
ceived how  destructive  to  intellect  the  prevailing  system  of 
classical  education  is  ;  or  rather  that  so  few  have  had  courage  to 
avow  if."  Now  here  is  pointed  out  one  of  the  principal  causes 
that  has  operated  to  keep  these  studies  in  vogue.  It  is  not  so 
much  the  universality  of  belief  in  their  efficacy,  as  the  want 
of  sufficient  independence,  on  the  part  of  those  who  doubt, 
to  declare  their  real  sentiments.  It  is  very  apparent  that 
classical  learning  has  long  been  on  the  decline  in  Europe,  not- 
withstanding its  far  more  intimate  connexion,  in  numberless 
ways,  with  the  government,  the  church,  and  in  short  the 
whole  structure  of  society,  than  it  has  now,  or  ever  has  had, 
in  this  country.  Here,  there  is  certainly  no  decline  ;  but 
yet  here,  as  well  as  there,  a  considerable  portion  of  those  who 
have  gone  through  the  regular  course,  think  by  no  means 
highly  of  it,  and  this  they  often  confess  under  the  rose — the 
mischief  is,  they  are  deterred  from  a  free  expression  of  their 
thoughts,  by  the  overwhelming  influence  of  established  insti- 
tutions. It  is  gratifying  to  observe  that  in  England  at  least,  a 
more  manly  tone  is  of  late  becoming  prevalent,  of  which  the 
reader  will  find  some  specimens,  well  deserving  his  perusal, 
here  printed  in  the  appendix.  They  are  taken  from  period- 
ical works  of  some  celebrity  ;  which  being  uniformly  con- 
ducted by  scholars  of  note,  it  is  scholars  themselves  who 
speak  in  the  pages  referred  to — and  as  the  same  remark  will 


8  PREFACE. 

apply  to  nine  tenths  of  all  the  quotations  I  have  thought  pro- 
per to  introduce  in  the  course  of  the  argument,  it  is  perfectly 
fair,  in  short  almost  unavoidable,  to  consider  all  these,  as  far 
as  they  go,  as  so  many  concessions  made  by  an  opponent.  In- 
deed, in  any  other  light,  few  would  have  been  admitted  ;  for 
to  appeal  to  authority  in  argumentative  discussions  is  always 
a  sort  of  pciitio  principii,  or  in  common  parlance,  begging  the 
question. 

Before  closing  these  prefatory  remarks,  already  long 
enough,  I  beg  leave  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  manner  in 
which  the  inquiry  is  pursued,  at  this  time  and  before — not 
however  in  a  literary  point  of  view,  for  I  hold  the  art  of 
writing,  or  in  other  words,  the  facings  and  trimmings  of  litera- 
ry composition,  at  too  cheap  a  rate  to  feel  any  solicitude  on 
that  score.  But  it  has  been  hinted  by  more  than  one,  whose 
opinion  on  the  general  subject  accords  sufficiently  well  with 
my  own,  that  a  sort  of  sneering  air  pervades  the  whole,  at 
which  offence  may  very  likely  be  taken.  As  to  this,  the  read- 
er must  bear  in  mind,  in  justice  to  the  writer,  that  when  schol- 
ars are  spoken  of,  reference  is  made  abstractly  to  their  scholar- 
ship— for  which  having  really  no  great  respect,  it  would  have 
been  a  breach  of  candour  to  counterfeit  what  1  could  not  feel. 
Whether  Dr.  Watts  be  right  in  saying  that  "  a  mere  scholar  is 
but  a  contemptible  sort  of  thing  in  the  world"  is  perhaps  doubt- 
ful, at  least  as  to  this  country  ;  but  what  we  all  know  is,  that 
for  the  active  purposes  of  life,  he  is  for  the  most  part  a  very  help- 
less sort  of  thing.  Nevertheless  when  this  species  of  learning 
is  allied  to  valuable  acquisitions  of  other  kinds,  as  it  often  is  ; 
and  especially  when  properly  kept  under,  as  it  sometimes  is  ; 
I  may  with  perfect  consistency,  and  actually  do  entertain  a 
sincere  regard  for  its  possessor,  though  none  for  the  object 
possessed.  Classical  learning,  as  I  view  it,  adds  nothing  to  the 
merit  of  any  man  ;  nor  on  the  other  hand  can  it  subtract  any 
thing.  If  those  who  make  scholarship  their  hobby,  feel  hurt 
at  any  thing  contained  in  these  pages  (which  by  the  way  is 
not  very  likely)  no  apology  would  answer  any  purpose  ;  and 
as  to  the  far  larger  portion,  as  I  believe  them  to  be,  who  wear 
their  robe  loosely,  as  a  mere  dress  of  fashion  ;  their  real  sen- 
timent, could  we  get  at  it,  would  differ  from  mine,  there  is 
reason  to  believe,  much  less  them  is  generally  supposed. 


CLASSICAL    LEARNING. 


CHAPTER   I. 


Presumptions  in  favour  of  the  dead  languages  considered — their 
alleged  advantages  stated. 

The  advocates  of  classical  learning  often  contend,  and  with 
apparent  gravity,  that  its  utility  is  no  longer  a  debateable 
point — that  such  strong  presumptions  may  be  shown  in  its  fa- 
vour as  ought  to  supersede  all  farther  inquiry  into  its  merits. 
It  is  presumable,  say  they,  that  a  branch  of  instruction,  which 
has  continued  for  many  centuries,  and  been  so  generally  ap- 
proved, must  possess  intrinsic  value,  and  should  therefore  be 
entitled  to  a  distinguished  place  in  every  system  of  liberal 
education.  This  to  be  sure  is  a  handy  way  of  proving  a 
thing  useful ;  but  it  will  not  bear  examination.  The  inference 
they  would  draw,  though  plausible  enough  at  first  view,  will, 
on  a  little  reflection,  be  found  to  rest  on  a  twofold  assumption, 
which  the  experience  of  all  ages  might  refute.  It  supposes 
that  any  species  of  knowledge,  or  course  of  tuition,  that  was 
found  advantageous  in  early  periods  of  the  world,  must  nec- 
essarily be  so  in  all  subsequent  periods ;  and  it  supposes  like- 
wise that  whatever  obtains  general  assent  must  have  truth 
and  value  for  its  basis.  But  the  slightest  acquaintance  with 
the  history  of  human  society,  and  human  knowledge,  might 
lead  us  to  distrust  either  branch  of  the  hypothesis.  As  re- 
gards the  first,  that  what  was  useful  in  former  times  must  be 
useful  now,  so  far  from  being  founded  on  proof,  it  is  even  de- 
void of  probability.  For  it  would  seem  much  more  likely, 
antecedent  to  all  observation,  that  when  important  changes 


10  CHAPTER    I. 

have  occurred  in  the  condition  of  mankind,  a  corresponding 
change  becomes  expedient  in  matters  of  instruction.  Not  on- 
ly may  the  value  of  different  branches  of  knowledge  have  al- 
tered materially,  but  others  before  wholly  unknown,  yet  of 
inestimable  importance  to  the  comforts  and  happiness  of  men, 
may  have  been  brought  into  life  ;  which  indeed  is  actually 
the  case  in  our  day.  In  a  progressive  age  therefore  the 
chance  always  is,  that  systems  of  long  standing  are  not  pre- 
cisely such  as  the  period  requires;  and  habit,  in  such  an  age, 
becomes  a  dead  weight,  which,  if  not  cast  off,  must  inevitably 
retard  the  progress.  Education  indeed,  if  wholly  unfettered 
by  prejudice,  would  naturally  keep  pace  with  the  mutations 
incident  to  society,  otherwise  there  could  be  nothing  rational 
about  it.  And  is  it  supposable  that  the  industrious  and  en- 
terprising men  of  our  day,  or  even  the  professional  and  scien- 
tific, are  best  fitted  for  pursuing  their  several  vocations  by  the 
school  learning  of  antiquity — the  learning  of  an  age  as  unlike 
our  own  in  character  as  it  is  remote  in  time  ? 

But  the  argument  I  now  oppose  is  almost  too  frivolous  to 
need  an  elaborate  examination.  Do  those  who  hold  such 
language  mean  to  insist,  that  the  practice  of  ages  long  passed 
by  is  alone  competent  authority  for  us  ?  If  they  do,  then,  in- 
stead  of  confining  their  patronage  to  the  dead  languages,  they 
ought,  if  they  would  be  consistent,  to  revive  alchymy,  astrolo- 
gy, necromancy,  scholastic  philosophy,  and  a  thousand  other 
fooleries  and  nonentities,  which  the  common  sense  of  mankind 
has  long  since  exploded.  This  whole  train  of  follies,  one  as 
much  as  another,  have  an  equal  right,  under  this  argument,  to 
protection  and  encouragement.  Consequently,  either  the  doc- 
trine has  no  validity  whatever,  or  each  and  every  one  of  the 
impostures  just  mentioned  should  again  take  rank  at  our  seats 
of  learning — an  alternative  that  may  well  be  left  with  such 
reasoners  to  choose  as  they  list. 

With  regard  to  the  other  notion,  that  a  prevailing  favoura- 
ble opinion  is  adequate  proof  of  intrinsic  excellence  ;  I  admit 
it  to  be  presumptive  proof,  but  nothing  more — for  most  certain- 
ly neither  sound  philosophy,  nor  subsequent  experience,  has 
invariably  justified  public  sentiment.  Many  are  the  sources 
of  error,  and  many  the  causes  that  may  combine  to  fasten  it 
upon  the  world. — The  influence  of  education  and  of  habit, 
the  proneness  to  imitation,  the  veneration  for  antiquity,  and  in- 
numerable others,  separately  or  collectively,  may  operate  to 
this  end.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  topics  of  this  nature,  moralists 
as  well  as   metaphysicians   have   ever  found   inexhaustible 


CHAPTER    I.  11 

themes  both  for  speculation  and  admonition.  Nor  could  any 
thing  better  deserve  their  most  serious  meditation  ;  for  here 
lie  the  germs  of  numberless  prejudices.  When  causes  like 
these,  having  a  deep  foundation  in  human  nature,  have  co-op- 
erated to  perpetuate  either  a  speculative  doctrine  or  a  practi- 
cal line  of  conduct,  their  combined  efficacy  has  been  truly 
surprising.  What  monstrous  errors,  both  of  theory  and  prac- 
tice, have,  in  different  periods  of  the  world,  controlled  the 
minds  and  guided  the  actions  of  men,  not  only  for  years,  but 
even  centuries  in  succession — errors  so  pernicious  in  their 
tendency,  and,  once  dispelled,  so  manifest  too,  as  to  create  as- 
tonishment they  should  ever  have  prevailed.  Whoever  has 
turned  over  the  page  of  history  will  find  many  examples  of 
this  nature  press  on  his  recollection. 

We  need  not  remount,  in  search  of  apt  illustrations,  to  those 
periods,  which  by  force  of  custom  we  call  the  brilliant  eras 
of  Greece  and  Rome  ;  but  during  which,  in  truth,  the  whole 
body  of  philosophy  and  the  whole  course  of  practice  were 
little  else  than  error  and  superstition ; — nor  shall  I  advert  to 
the  evanescent  subtleties  of  monkish  metaphysics,  which  the 
schoolmen  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  imposed  on  the 
world  as  real  knowledge.  It  is  directly  to  our  purpose,  how- 
ever, to  call  to  mind  another  delusion,  immediately  relating  to 
education,  which  took  its  rise  or  rather  was  revived  about  the 
same  period,  and  unhappily  maintained  its  ascendency  through 
many  ages,  quite  down  to  our  own  times  ;  I  mean  Syllogistic 
Logic.  The  intricate  web  of  sophistry,  to  which  the  method 
of  syllogism  owed  its  origin,  was  so  ingeniously  wrought  by 
Aristotle,  that  soon  after  the  revival  of  his  philosophy,  the 
method  was  adopted  in  all  the  Schools,  Colleges,  and  other 
literary  institutions,  as  the  grand,  or  rather  the  only  efficient 
instrument  for  eliciting  truth  or  detecting  error  in  every  de- 
partment of  knowledge.  Yet  modern  reasoners  have  proved 
to  demonstration  (particularly  Locke,  Reid,  and  Stewart,)  that 
this  system  of  logic,  with  all  its  "  wild  meanders  of  mood  and 
figure,"  can  furnish  no  clue  whatever  to  those  intermediate 
ideas,  which,  in  every  argumentative  process,  constitute  the 
proof.  In  short,  as  a  mode  of  investigation,  it  is  manifestly 
useless,  and  has  been  so  considered  by  every  writer  of  the 
last  half  century,  with  the  single  exception,  as  far  as  I  know, 
of  the  author  of  two  volumes  on  Rhetoric  and  Oratory.  He 
indeed  seems  strangely  fascinated  with  this  splendid  bubble  of 
the  Stagyrite  ;  which,  as  Lord  Karnes  well  observes,  is  "  beau- 
tiful in  form  and  colours,  but  empty  within."      Such  as  the 


12  CHAPTER    I. 

scheme  was,  however,  with  all  its  absurdity  and  all  its  formal 
pedantry,  the  world  regarded  it  for  ages,  under  sanction  of 
the  schools,  as  the  only  path  to  knowledge.  Here  then  was  a 
branch  of  instruction,  of  so  imposing  an  aspect,  as  to  take 
precedence  of  all  others  in  academic  institutions,  for  several 
generations  after  its  futility  had  been  completely  exposed.  Is 
it  possible  to  have  a  case  more  in  point  ?* 

Nor  have  such  mistakes  by  any  means  been  confined  to 
subjects  purely  speculative.  The  records  of  physical  sci- 
ence, of  astronomy,  chemistry,  geography,  agriculture,  me- 
chanics, and  in  short  every  branch,  furnish  not  less  numerous 
nor  less  striking  memorials  of  human  fallibility — Nay,  in  mat- 
ters still  more  practical,  in  commerce,  where  men  profess  to 
be  guided  exclusively  by  observation  and  experiment,  as 
their  polar  stars,  hypothesis  has  often  triumphed  in  despite 
even  of  common  sense.  For  a  long  course  of  years,  as  we 
all  know,  the  only  criterion  of  advantageous  commerce  was 
thought  to  consist  in  the  balance  of  trade  ;  and  it  is  quite  with- 
in our  own  times,  that  this  mistaken  theory  has  been  exploded. 
So  likewise  on  notions  equally  delusive,  was  founded  the  self- 
ish system  of  exclusion  and  restriction  which  for  ages  past 
has  most  injuriously  abridged  the  mercantile  intercourse  of 
nations  ;  and  here  too,  as  far  at  least  as  Europe  is  concerned, 
we  perceive  at  last  the  force  of  error  rapidly  giving  way  un- 
der a  more  liberal  and  much  wiser  policy.  In  matters  of  this 
kind,  where  some  of  us,  perhaps,  feel  more  at  home,  we  can 
better  realize  the  progress  of  knowledge — we  can  almost  dis- 
cern the  precise  manner,  in  which,  sooner  or  later,  the  light  of 
reason  chases  away  the  fog  of  prejudice. 


*  It  may  reasonably  create  astonishment  with  all  who  are  not  aware  to  what 
lengths  classic  faith  will  sometimes  push  on  its  devotees,  to  find  this  relic  of 
vain  philosophy  still  the  object  of  adoration.  'I  he  opinion  of  the  author  above 
alluded  to  is  not  more  singular,  however,  than  the  manner  in  which  it  is  con- 
veyed. Speaking  of  syllogism,  he  says,  "  It  is  enough  for  me  to  believe  it  the 
most  compendious  and  most  irresistible  process  of  reason  that  the  human  mind 
has  ever  discovered  ;  and  having  the  express  authority  of  Aristotle  for  exclud- 
ing it  from  the  ways  and  means  of  oratory,  I  need  not  enter  into  the  scrutiny 
how  far  it  may  be  useful  elsewhere." — What  !  Aristotle  exclude  from  oratory 
"  the  most  irresistible  process  of  reason  ?"  a  process  too  of  his  own  inven- 
tion ? — The  ancient  sage  must  really  have  been  a  very  droll  fellow  ;  and  his 
disciple  also  a  little  bit  of  a  wag.  Seriously  however,  if  oratory  be  addressed 
to  our  rational  faculties,  why  interdict  the  best  mode  of  reasoning  ?  Jf  it  be 
not  so  addressed,  why  write  two  volumes  to  sei  forth  its  excellence  ?  (see  vol. 
2.  page  37.)  I  am  Tiappy  to  see  that  Professor  Hedge,  in  his  unpretending, 
yet  very  judicious  little  book,  estimates  the  thing  differently  and  much  more 
philosophically. 


CHAPTER    I.  13 

Of  all  infatuations,  however,  none  are  more  astonishing  than 
the  absurd  and  revolting  superstitions,  which  have  marked 
the  course  of  man  in  his  religious  rites  and  tenets — degrading 
often  the  human  character  to  the  brute,  the  divine  to  the  hu- 
man. 

The  sort  of  opinions  and  practices  to  which  we  have  just 
adverted,  it  may  be  remarked,  were  always  errors,  at  what- 
ever period  they  may  have  been  in  vogue.  There  never  was 
a  time  when  any  of  them  were  true,  just  or  expedient.  Be- 
sides these,  however,  there  have  no  doubt  been  doctrines,  cus- 
toms, and  habits  of  other  kinds,  which  at  certain  epochs  were 
well  adapted  to  existing  circumstances,  and  for  a  while  there- 
fore were  just  or  proper — yet,  owing  to  some  change  in  the 
ever-varying  state  of  human  society,  became  at  length  preju- 
dicial— and  it  is  a  common  observation,  that,  from  the  very 
nature  of  habit,  such  things  will  often  continue  long  after 
their  justifying  causes  or  motives  have  ceased.  "Men  retain 
the  errors  of  their  infancy,  their  country  and  the  age  in  which 
they  live,  (says  a  French  writer)  long  after  the  truths  neces- 
sary to  the  removal  of  those  errors  are  acknowledged." 
Whether  classical  studies  belong  to  the  former  or  the  latter 
description  of  customs,  it  is  not  needful  to  determine.  It  may 
be  they  really  were  useful  in  the  early  periods  of  modern  Eu- 
rope ;  though  even  this,  to  my  mind,  is  not  very  apparent. — 
Whether  so  or  not,  no  man,  it  is  presumed,  will  go  so  far  as  to 
maintain  that  the  time  can  never  arrive  when  they  may  be 
spared — but  if  such  a  period  be  possible,  it  may  now  be  pres- 
ent ;  and  what  proof  have  we  that  it  is  not  ?  At  any  rate, 
the  slightest  glance  at  the  history  of  mankind  is  enough  to 
convince  us  that  implicit  confidence  should  never  be  reposed 
in  the  truth  of  any  theory,  or  the  propriety  of  any  custom 
merely  because  it  has  reigned  long  and  obtained  general  as- 
sent. Even  in  the  present  age  we  have  no  right  to  think  our- 
selves infallible  ;  for  with  all  the  light  that  advanced  know- 
ledge and  improved  science  diffuse  around,  what  can  insure 
us  against  error,  should  education,  custom,  and  the  spirit  of 
imitation  conspire  to  impose  it. 

While  therefore  we  are  bound  to  regard  with  suitable  re- 
spect whatever  is  ancient  and  of  long  standing,  it  no  less  be- 
hoves us  on  the  other  hand  to  be  watchful  against  any  undue 
bias  from  this  source.  A  reverence  for  antiquity  is  indeed  so 
natural  and  so  common,  giving  rise  at  the  same  time  to  preju- 
dices so  numerous,  that  the  learned  and  candid  Dr.  Watts, 
in  his  book  on  Logic,  has  not  only  classed  it  among  the  springs 


14  CHAPTER    I. 

of  false  judgment,  but  dwells  on  it  with  peculiar  emphasis 
and  repeated  cautions.  The  following  quotations*  have  a  di- 
rect application  to  our  subject  : — "  It  is  custom  (says  he)  and 
not  reason  that  sends  every  boy  to  school  to  learn  the  Roman 
Poets,  and  begin  a  little  acquaintance  with  Greek  before  he  is 
bound  out  an  apprentice."  Again  he  says,  "  This  business  of 
fashion  has  a  most  powerful  influence  on  our  judgment  ;  for  it 
employs  the  two  strong  engines,  fear  and  shame,  to  operate  on 
our  understandings  with  unhappy  success.  We  are  ashamed 
to  believe  or  profess  any  unfashionable  opinion  in  philoso- 
phy." "  We  pay  deference  to  the  opinions  of  others  merely 
because  they  lived  two  thousand  years  before  us  ;  and  even  the 
trifles  and  impertinences  that  have  the  mark  of  antiquity  up- 
on them,  are  reverenced  for  this  reason,  because  they  came 
from  the  ancients."  He  further  remarks,  "  to  believe  in  all 
things  as  our  predecessors  did  is  the  ready  way  to  keep  man- 
kind in  an  everlasting  state  of  infancy."  Finally,  he  says  in 
another  book,t  "  If  we  would  find  out  the  truth,  we  must  in 
many  cases  dare  to  deviate  from  the  long  beaten  track,  and 
venture  to  think  with  a  free  and  unbiased  liberty."  With 
similar  independence  of  sentiment,  that  great  detecter  of  an- 
cient sophistry,  Locke,  observes  "  some  will  not  admit  an 
opinion  not  authorized  by  men  of  old  who  were  then  all  gi- 
ants in  knowledge.  Nothing  is  to  be  put  into  the  scale  of 
truth  which  has  not  the  stamp  of  Greece  or  Rome  upon  it  ; 
and  it  is  scarcely  allowed  that  since  those  days  men  have 
been  able  to  see,  think  or  write."!  So  too  my  Lord  Chester- 
field, who  surely  cannot  be  accused  of  classical  antipathies  : 
"  We  are  really  so  prejudiced  by  our  education,  that  as  the 
ancients  deified  their  heroes,  so  we  deify  their  madmen,  of 
which,  with  all  due  regard  to  antiquity,  I  take  Leonidas  and 
Curtius  to  be  two  distinguished  ones."||  The  class  of  preju- 
dices of  which  we  are  now  speaking  is  also  finely  satirized 
by  Pope, 

"  Authors,  like  coins,  grow  dear  as  they  grow  old  ; 
But  'tis  the  rust  we  value,  not  the  gold." 

Such  then  are  the  sentiments  of  men  who  knew  how  to  ap- 


"  Watts's  Logic,  part  2.  chap.  3.  sec.  4. 
t  Watts  on  the  Mind,  part  2.  chap.  4. 
t  Locke  on  the  Understanding,  sec.  24. 
!|  Chesterfield's  Selected  Letters,  page  97. 


CHAPTER    I.  15 

predate  the  potent  influence  of  fashion,  education  and  author- 
ity, in  matters  of  opinion. 

It  would  no  doubt  be  always  an  instructive,  and  sometimes 
an  amusing  exercise,  to  investigate  the  causes  that  have  orig- 
inated, or  given  permanence  to  any  prevailing  custom  ;  but  as 
this  can  never  be  considered  an  indispensable  preliminary  to 
a  discussion  of  its  real  merits,  we  may  well  avoid  on  the  pre- 
sent occasion  so  extensive  a  field  of  research.  This  remark 
naturally  points  our  attention  more  directly  to  the  subject  pro- 
posed for  consideration. 

That  Latin  and  Greek  are  eminently  useful,  in  some  way 
or  other,  is  a  belief  taken  up  so  early  in  life,  that  no  man  is 
able  to  say  how  or  when  he  came  by  it.  The  notion  is  imbi- 
bed almost  in  infancy  ;  and  ever  after,  in  school,  in  college, 
in  society  at  large,  its  echo  meets  our  ear  ;  and  thus  it  passes 
as  a  self-evident  axiom  requiring  neither  proof  nor  authority. 
All  seem  to  partake  the  impression,  though  few  ever  think  of 
assigning  to  themselves  any  reason  at  all,  and  none  I  believe 
could  assign  a  good  one. 

So  numerous  indeed  are  the  pleasing  associations  by  which 
these  studies  are  surrounded,  and  so  extensive  the  influence 
of  literary  institutions  in  which  they  are  pursued,  that  one 
may  be  thought  almost  to  commit  a  sacrilege  in  doubting  their 
utility.  Yet  could  we  regard  them,  divested  of  all  imaginary 
charms  and  excellences  ;  they  might  appear  perhaps  quite 
unworthy  the  homage  they  have  received.  In  short,  the  im- 
portance attached  to  them  might  exhibit  possibly  another  in- 
stance of  those  wide-spread  and  lasting  delusions,  that  have  so 
often  reigned  unsuspected,  and  for  this  very  reason  unexamin- 
ed. In  this  light,  as  I  believe,  the  matter  will  sooner  or  later 
appear  to  all. 

Numberless  are  the  encomiums,  incidental  and  special, 
which  the  studies  here  objected  to  have  received  from  the 
pens  of  the  learned  ;  while  in  the  transient  conversations  of  so- 
cial life,  they  gather  a  daily  tribute  of  praise  and  admiration. 
But  commendation  of  the  latter  kind  being  more  frequently 
the  offspring  of  fashion,  than  reflection,  and  seldom  supported 
by  any  show  of  reasoning,  to  the  former  we  must  refer,  if  we 
would  wish  to  know  the  kind  or  degree  of  utility  ascribed  to 
such  studies.  Unfortunately,  however,  their  eulogists  among 
writers  have  been  almost  as  vague  as  among  talkers.  The 
most  definite  of  any  perhaps  are,  Dr.  Beattie  in  his  essay  on 
classical  learning,  Dr.  Gregory  in  an  essay  on  the  same  sub- 
ject, and  those  celebrated  teachers  Drs.  Barrow  and  Knox  in 


16  CHAPTER   I. 

their  ample  volumes  on  education — all  learned  men,  though 
each  of  them  abounding,  as  we  shall  see,  in  occasional  confes- 
sions quite  at  variance  with  their  theories.  The  substance  of 
all  the  arguments  advanced  by  these  writers,  or  as  far  as  I 
know,  by  others,  may  be  embraced  in  the  following  proposi- 
tions : — 

1st.  That  the  true  signification  of  numerous  English  words 
can  be  learnt  only  by  appealing  to  Latin. 

2d.  That  an  acquaintance  with  the  structure  of  the  dead 
languages  leads  to  a  more  accurate  grammatical  knowledge 
of  our  own. 

3d.  That  a  familiarity  with  the  ancient  classics  imparts  an 
elegance  and  gives  a  polish  to  English  composition,  unattaina- 
ble by  other  means. 

4th.  That  ancient  writings  contain  a  fund  of  valuable  know- 
ledge, to  which  the  mere  English  reader  has  no  access. 

5th.  That  they  open  an  inexhaustible  source  of  rational 
and  elegant  amusement  for  leisure  hours,  and  thus  wean  us 
from  recreations  less  innocent,  or  less  praiseworthy. 

6th.  That  these  studies  afford  a  salutary  exercise  of  the 
mental  faculties,  induce  habits  of  application,  and  occupy  a 
period  of  youth  which  could  not  otherwise  be  advantageously 
employed. 

Such  are  the  recommendations  most  frequently  urged  in 
behalf  of  classical  studies  ;  and  if  the  reader  will  reflect  up- 
on it,  he  will  find  that  all  he  has  ever  heard  said  on  that  side, 
or  at  least  all  that  has  had  any  weight  in  his  mind,  will  fall 
under  one  or  the  other  of  these  heads.  Not  that  they  em- 
brace all,  strictly  speaking  ;  for  so  boundless  is  modern  grati- 
tude that  scarcely  any  excellence,  real  or  imaginary,  but  has 
been  accounted  for  in  that  way.  Mr.  Knox,  indeed,  seems  to 
think  that  every  thing  desirable  will  follow  in  the  train  ;  and 
that  taste,  religion,  virtue,  and  even  the  liberties  of  mankind 
are  intimately  connected  with  the  support  of  ancient  learning. 
The  last  North  American  Review  also  contains  something  of 
this  stamp.  In  an  article  on  classical  learning  we  find  all  the 
old  grounds  neglected  ;  and  the  writer  flutters  away  over 
fields  entirely  new,  and  so  nimbly  as  rarely  to  be  got  sight  of. 
If  a  reader  can  catch  him  anywhere,  it  must  be  at  one  of  these 
points — that  some  foreign  literature  is  indispensable,  and  any 
but  the  classics  would  endanger  our  literary  independence — 
that  they  are  faithful  assistants  of  creative  genius,  (though  by 
the  way  Knox  admits  their  barrenness  of  invention) — that  as  we 
have  no  ancient    monuments  in  this  country,  no  ruins,  no 


CHAPTER    I.  17 

specimens  of  art,  no  Roman  jurisprudence,  we  must  fain  take 
their  language  or  nothing — which  as  any  one  may  perceive  is 
begging  the  question  all  the  way  through.  But  such  extrava- 
gance is  the  legitimate  object  of  ridicule,  not  of  argument. 
The  preceding  six  propositions  (or  arguments  if  you  please  to 
call  them)  it  is  intended  to  treat  successively,  and  as  far  as 
possible  specifically.  And  in  doing  this  I  expect  to  satisfy 
the  reader,  that  if  classical  learning  is  destined  still  to  triumph 
(in  reason  I  mean)  the  victory  must  be  won  under  new  ban- 
ners. 

It  would  be  nowise  difficult  to  show  at  the  outset,  that  my 
sentiments  on  this  subject,  though  counter  to  the  main  stream 
of  opinion,  are  far  from  being  entirely  new — that  in  many  re- 
spects they  have  found  advocates  among  such  men  as  Bacon, 
Locke,  Karnes,  Priestley,  Sheridan  and  many  others  of  high 
standing  in  literature  and  science.  Volumes  might  be  filled 
with  quotations  of  this  tendency.  I  shall  here  offer  but  two, 
and  those  from  writers  yet  more  recent,  and  whose  sentiments 
are  yet  more  distinctly  expressed.  Mr.  Heron,  whose  clas- 
sical attainments  no  one  can  doubt,  expresses  himself,  in  his 
"  Letters  on  Literature"  as  follows — "  One  of  the  most  glar- 
ing defects  in  the  present  state  of  pedantic  science  (by  which 
he  means  the  science  of  education)  is  the  great  time  wasted  in 
acquiring  the  dead  languages,  which  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
are  of  no  use  to  the  child,  but  in  fact  are  quite  neglected  and 
forgotten  by  him  in  a  few  months  after  he  leaves  the  school. 
Perfection  of  folly,  to  waste  the  precious  years  of  human  life 
in  learning  useless  languages."*  Again,  speaking  of  such  a 
student,  he  says,  "  his  being  a  man  all  his  life  is  of  no  conse- 
quence, provided  he  is  a  scholar  for  a  few  years — prejudice, 
prejudice  !  when  will  the  happy  period  arrive  that  human 
kind  will  break  thy  detestable  shackles,  only  strong  from  the 
weakness  of  the  wearer."  My  next  citation  is  from  a  spirited 
essay  against  the  prevailing  system,  written  by  the  late  cele- 
brated Dr.  Rush  of  Philadelphia,  about  forty  years  since — 
*'  The  expulsion  of  Latin  and  Greek  from  our  schools  would 
produce  a  revolution  in  science  and  in  human  affairs — Tfeat 
nation  which  shall  first  shake  off  the  fetters  of  those  ancient 
languages,  will  advance  further  in  knowledge  and  in  happi- 
ness, in  twenty  years,  than  any  nation  in  Europe  has  done  in  a 
hundred."t  This  anticipation  of  the  Doctor's  appears  to  me  to 

*  Heron's  Letters,  page  348. 
t  Rush's  Essay. 


18  C1IATTER   I. 

be  a  conclusion  of  sound  philosophy ;  resulting  from  a  compre- 
hensive view  of  things,  and  from  a  just  comparison  of  the 
sort  of  knowledge  required  by  the  existing  circumstances  of 
the  world,  contrasted  with  the  deficiency  as  well  as  the  de- 
fects of  the  reigning  system — a  system,  to  the  whole  of  which 
might  very  properly  be  applied  the  reflections  of  a  learned 
Professor  on  certain  parts  of  it — "  we  call  to  mind  (says  he) 
that  this  weighty  chain  of  prescription  was  forged  in  other 
times  and  under  other  circumstances  ;  why  then  should  we 
hesitate  in  refusing  to  drag  it  after  us  any  longer,  now  that  a 
change  has  taken  place  ?"*  It  must  be  confessed,  however, 
that  the  efficacy  of  all  past  attempts  to  stem  the  torrent  of 
prejudice  has  been  small ;  and  although  in  the  present  in- 
stance it  may  be  still  less,  there  is  yet  some  consolation  in  the 
belief,  grounded  on  various  indications,  that  the  lapse  of  an- 
other half  century  will  witness  a  radical  change  of  public 
sentiment  in  this  respect. 

If  it  be  wondered,  that  such  a  prediction  should  be  hazard- 
ed at  a  moment  when  all  our  classical  seminaries  are  gradual- 
ly expanding  under  the  bright  sunshine  of  public  patronage, 
and  private  munificence  ;  let  it  be  remembered,  it  was  at  the 
very  acme  of  papal  supremacy  that  Luther  and  his  coadjutors 
arose,  and  by  a  bold  appeal  to  men's  reason,  rent  asunder 
the  fetters  of  mental  bondage,  and  laid  prostrate  the  Romish 
tiara.  It  is  indeed  when  error  is  most  triumphant  that  it  is 
most  felt,  and  then  is  precisely  the  time  to  expect  its  over- 
throw. The  moon  can  be  eclipsed  only  at  her  full.  It  must 
not  be  imagined,  however,  that  the  author  of  these  remarks  so 
wofully  mistakes  his  own  powers  as  to  fancy  that  he  is  to  be 
the  instrument  of  a  similar  revolution  in  matters  of  education. 
He  is  under  no  such  illusion — yet  there  is  a  chance  of  awak- 
ening attention,  and  thus  stimulating  others  who  are  equal  to 
the  task  ;  and  of  such  he  believes  there  are  not  a  few.  No 
doubt  the  prepossessions  by  which  the  existing  system  is  sus- 
tained are  as  tenacious  as  they  are  numerous,  and  run  through 
every  vein  of  society  ;  yet  to  overcome  them  would  require 
by  no  means  the  genius,  nor  the  learning,  though  perhaps  it 
might  all  the  perseverance,  that  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  illustrious 
reformer  in  religion.  The  consequences  of  such  a  change 
would,  in  my  opinion,  be  no  less  beneficial  to  the  best  inter- 
ests of  society. 

*    North  American  Review,  toI.  11th.  page  211. 


CHAPTER   II.  19 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  dead  languages,  no  guide  to  the  signification  of  English 

7oords. 

Having    offered  such  preliminary  remarks    as  seemed 
appropriate,  we   now  come  into  closer  contact  with  the  spe- 
cific? arguments  usually  advanced  on  the  side  of  classical  stu- 
dies.     Of  those  arguments  none  perhaps  is   so  uniformly  in- 
sisted upon  as  this — that  great  aid  may  thence  be  obtained  for 
determining  the  true  import  of  English  words — yet  nothing,  I 
venture  to  say,  can  be  more  fallacious.      That  a  doctrine  so 
industriously  promulgated  should  have  made  its  way  into  the 
minds  even  of  well  informed  people,  is  not  indeed  to  be  won- 
dered at  ;  but  we  may  well  be  surprised  to  find  it  sanctioned 
by  scholars,  whose  acquaintance  with  classic  tongues  should 
have  taught  them  better.      This  sanction  is  the  more  extraor- 
dinary, and  indeed  quite  unaccountable,  since  it  is  well  known 
that  the  higher  grade  of  philological  writers — men  in  whom 
were  united   the  attainments  of  the  linguist,  metaphysician, 
and  logician — all  admit  that  no   foreign  language  whatever 
can  be  of  any  avail  in  this  respect.      The  authorities  that 
might  be  appealed  to  on  this  head  would  be  conclusive  ;    not 
however  by  the  mere  influence  of  names,  for  that  should 
weigh  little  ;    but  by  the  cogency  of  their  reasonings.      In- 
deed every  man,  who  has  maturely  considered  the  nature 
and  use  of  words  as  conventional  signs  of  ideas,  would  con- 
cede the  point  at  once ;  for  signs,  to  be  conventional,  must  re- 
ceive their  signification  from  common  consent.     But  as  many 
persons,   possibly   the  majority,  have   never    turned    their 
thoughts  this   way,  the  subject  must  be  gone   into  at  some 
length,  and  viewed  in  various  lights,  in  order  to  convince  such 
persons  that  foreign  tongues  can  have  no  agency  in  the  case. 
But  in  the  first  place  I  would  call  the  reader's  attention  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  claims  of  scholarship  are  usually 
set  forth.     Often  it  consists  of  nothing  more  than  some  gene- 
ral assertion,  that  such  or  such  good  effects  is  produced.    But 
the  more  usual  way  perhaps  is  to  adopt  a  phraseology  wholly 
indeterminate,  which,  though  implying  much,  may  easily  find 


20  CHAPTER    II. 

in  its  own  vagueness  a  safeguard  against  any  decisive  refuta- 
tion. Sometimes  however  the  thing  is  managed  in  another 
way — a  proposition  is  laid  down  in  terms  sufficiently  distinct, 
and  is  argued  upon  ;  but  afterwards  certain  exceptions,  quali- 
fications, and  explanations  are  admitted,  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  destroy  its  whole  force.  To  illustrate,  we  may  take  what 
Dr.  Gregory  says  on  the  very  topic  now  in  hand — In  his  es- 
say before  referred  to,  he  relies  on  bare  assertion,  as  follows, 
"  It  is  impossible  (says  he)  to  know  the  full  force,  the  correct 
application  of  words,  without  in  some  degree,  being  acquaint- 
ed with  their  source."  But  in  his  Letters,  where  the  topic  is 
more  enlarged  upon,  he  proceeds  after  the  manner  last  descri- 
bed. He  begins  at  page  40  in  this  way,  "  one  of  the  princi- 
pal advantages  of  the  dead  languages  is,  that  it  acquaints  us 
with  the  etymology  of  the  many  words  derived  from  them, 
and  this  is  often  the  most  certain  guide  to  their  correct  appli- 
cation." We  see  here,  that  the  Dr.  is  a  little  cautious  at  the 
very  beginning — but  observe  how  the  proposition  is  frittered 
away  afterwards — "  Etymology  (he  says  on  the  same  page) 
will  only  lead  us  to  the  literal  sense,"  which  sense,  by  the 
way,  every  reader  knows,  is  only  one  out  of  many.  On  the 
next  page  he  adds,  "  The  true  command  of  language  is  at 
last  only  to  be  gained  by  a  diligent  perusal  of  the  best  au- 
thors," meaning,  evidently  from  the  context,  English  authors. 
Finally  he  tells  us,  three  pages  farther  on,  with  regard  to  the 
choice  of  words,  "  Consult  (says  he)  the  best  authors,  and 
observe  their  different  applications.  The  original  sense  is  not 
always  a  certain  guide  in  the  use  of  common  words,  though,  if 
nicely  attended  to,  it  will  sometimes  help  us  to  the  reasons  of 
their  application."  Now  the  reader  will  clearly  perceive,  that 
if  due  allowance  be  made  for  these  explanations,  the  original 
proposition  has  entirely  vanished  ;  and  etymology,  on  sum- 
ming up  the  account,  is  not  worth  a  straw — But  1  proceed  to 
argument. 

That  the  dead  languages  can  be  of  no  avail,  may  be  made 
apparent  in  various  ways  : — In  the  first  place  it  is  evident, 
with  regard  to  a  great  number  of  words,  that,  as  their  origin  is 
unknown,  a  resort  to  the  parent  tongue  would  be  impossible. 
With  regard  to  all  others  it  would  be  deceptive,  because  not  a 
term  we  use  bears  precisely  the  same  signification  with  us,  as 
in  the  language  whence  it  was  taken.  Scarcely  a  word  could 
be  named,  of  Latin  derivation,  which  has  not  gained  some 
new  meaning  (in  general  many)  unknown  to  the  Romans  ; 
and  conversely,  not  one  perhaps  but  has  lost  some  of  its  an- 


CHAPTER    II.  21 

cient  acceptations.  In  fact  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  such 
words,  having  come  to  us  not  directly  but  mediately  through 
the  French,  experienced  no  inconsiderable  change  of  mean- 
ing on  their  passage.  So  that  the  French  use  much  more 
nearly  coincides  with  ours  than  the  Latin  does — yet  who  ever 
advised  studying  French  for  this  purpose  ? 

Another  thing  to  be  considered  is  (which  those  who  insist 
on  sending  us  back  to  Latin  seem  wholly  to  overlook)  that  in 
Latin,  as  in  all  other  languages,  words  are  used  in  various 
senses  ;    and  how  are  we  to  choose  ? 

Again,  if  the  import  of  terms  in  the  parent  tongue  be  the 
proper  standard  for  us,  why  are  we  referred  to  English  Dic- 
tionaries ?  Why  not  to  Latin,  French,  Anglo-Saxon,  or  Ger- 
man ?  Or  why  does  Johnson  illustrate  his  definitions  by  quo- 
tations from  English  authors  and  not  from  Latin  ?  Surely  if 
etymology  be  the  true  guide,  that  great  lexicographer  was 
capitally  mistaken  in  the  whole  scheme  of  his  work — we 
ought  indeed  to  set  him  down  as  a  lunatic,  and  consign  his  book 
to  future  generations,  under  the  persuasion  that  about  five  cen- 
turies hence,  according  to  this  theory,  it  will  be  nearly  old 
enough  to  be  serviceable. 

But  the  futility  of  this  etymological  doctrine  will  appear 
more  glaring,  by  considering  the  ultimate  principle  on  which 
it  rests,  and  whither  it  would  lead  us.  This  principle  is,  that 
the  first  use  of  a  word,  whencesoever  it  sprang,  must  regulate 
all  its  subsequent  applications — consequently  we  must  mount 
up  to  the  original  source,  if  we  would  ascertain  the  true  import. 
That  we  can  stop  no  where  short  of  this,  when  once  we  leave 
our  own  boundaries,  will  be  evident  from  the  following  reflec- 
tion : — that  the  word  whose  meaning  we  seek  may  possibly 
not  be  original  in  the  language  whence  we  have  taken  it,  and 
may,  for  all  we  know,  be  as  doubtfully  applied  there  as  in  our 
own.  If  therefore  any  such  term  can  be  traced  to  the  Latin,  we 
must  next  inquire  how  it  came  there ;  and  this  probably  would 
refer  us  to  the  Greek.  But  there  the  case  may  be  the  same 
and  we  should  be  sent  to  some  more  eastern  dialect,  and  so  on 
— for  as  the  Greeks  were  indebted  to  eastern  nations  for  most 
of  their  knowledge  and  science,  so  were  they  also  in  a  good 
measure  for  their  language,  even  to  their  very  alphabet.  But 
suppose,  if  you  please,  that  in  ascending  this  stream  of  pedi- 
gree, we  reach  its  source,  and  thus  ascertain  in  what  tongue  a 
word  took  its  rise  ;  the  next  step  is  to  seek  for  the  original 
signification  in  which  it  was  used  (for  the  plain  reason  that  all 
others  may  be  wrong)  and  this  most  certainly  could  never  be 


22  CHAPTER   II. 

found.  Consequently  we  should  be  no  nearer  the  object  of 
pursuit  at  the  end  than  at  the  beginning  of  our  labours  ;  and 
should  return  from  the  chase  of  this  ignis  fatuus,  bewildered 
and  deceived.  Such  then  being  the  probable  and  even  nec- 
essary result  of  etymological  researches,  how  unphilosophic- 
al,  how  utterly  futile  must  be  the  doctrine  we  now  oppose. 
Let  us  make  however  one  supposition  more — let  us  suppose  a 
man  so  miraculously  gifted  as  to  be  able  to  discover  the  orig- 
inal sense,  strictly  speaking,  of  a  few  words  ;  and  that  he 
were  to  construct  a  sentence  with  reference  to  that  sense  ; 
what  would  be  the  eeffect  ?  why  simply  this,  that  no  other 
mortal  living  could  guess  its  meaning. 

Lest  this  course  of  reasoning,  however,  should  not  be  equal- 
ly convincing  to  all,  I  beg  leave  to  place  the  subject  in  yet 
another  light.  It  will  be  readily  allowed  that  not  more  than 
one  in  ten  among  us  knows  any  thing  of  the  dead  languages, 
nor  one  in  a  hundred  is  familiar  with  them.  In  such  a  state 
of  things  it  follows  unavoidably  either  that  ninety-nine  out  of 
the  hundred  talk  and  write  habitually  without  understanding 
each  other  at  all — that  is  to  say  we  "  gabble  like  things  most 
brutish  ;"  or  else  we  have  some  criterion  in  regard  to  signifi- 
cation independent  of  Latin  or  Greek.  But  we  find  by  daily 
experience  that  we  do  understand  each  other — those  who  are 
not  scholars  just  as  well  as  those  who  are — consequently  the 
standard  of  meaning  must  exist  in  our  own  language  and  no 
where  else.  This  standard  is  custom  or  good  usage,  as  exem- 
plified in  approved  English  authors  ;  and  it  has  been  so  re- 
cognized by  all  writers  on  grammar  and  criticism  for  many 
years  past.  That  such  is  and  must  be  the  only  standard  is 
ably  set  forth  in  Dr.  Campbell's  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric?* 
and  in  various  other  established  works. 

The  diversified  significations  thus  assigned  by  usage,  have, 
with  infinite  labour,  been  sought  out  by  lexicographers,  and 
methodically  compiled  in  the  form  of  dictionaries — where 
lies  our  first  resort.  If  in  any  case  we  are  not  satisfied  with 
their  decisions  we  may  ultimately  appeal  to  authors  of  repute 
in  our  own  language  ;  but  in  no  case  whatever  to  Latin  or  any 
foreign  tongue.  There  might  be  thought  perhaps  at  first  view, 
to  be  exceptions  to  this  rule,  in  words  recently  introduced  ; 
since  fashion,  it  would  seem,  is  never  tired  of  borrowing  from 
the  French,  and  pedantry  seldom  satisfied  without  something 

*  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric.    B.  2.  chap.  1. 


CHAPTER   IT.  23 

new  from  the  Latin.  But  in  truth,  even  in  these  cases  we 
could  never  feel  sure  of  getting  at  the  sense  intended,  by  re- 
sorting to  other  tongues  ;  for  any  man,  who  would  be  pedant 
enough  to  use  words  entirely  new  without  at  the  same  time 
defining  their  sense  in  plain  English,  we  may  rely  upon  it, 
would  be  fool  enough  to  use  them  improperly. 

If  I  thought  it  probable  the  foregoing  reasonings  would  yet 
leave  many  readers  unsatisfied,  the  subject  might  be  elucida- 
ted in  divers  other  ways,  especially  by  showing  how  common 
a  thing  it  is  for  a  derivative  word  to  differ  materially  in  sense 
from  its  radical,  even  when  this  radical  is  of  native  origin. 
Besides,  have  not  most  of  our  words  many  and  distinct  signi- 
fications, some  even  forty  or  fifty  ?  Is  not  their  origin  in 
numberless  cases  disputed  ?  Is  not  a  large  portion,  perhaps 
the  greater  portion  of  them,  used  metaphorically  ?  Are  they 
not,  both  in  force  and  import,  singularly  modified  by  the  con- 
text ?  But  the  arguments  against  this  whimsical  doctrine  are 
so  numerous  and  so  various  it  would  be  almost  an  endless,  and 
I  imagine  quite  a  superfluous  task  to  pursue  them  any  farther. 
The  truth  is,  however  admirable  a  contrivance  language  may 
seem  to  be,  in  the  eye  of  philosophy — as  a  means  of  expres- 
sing the  subtle  operations  of  mind — it  is  really  a  much  less 
perfect  thing  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  principal  index 
to  signification,  and  the  principal  source  of  all  variety,  is  con- 
nexion. A  word  separately  taken,  since  it  may  be  the  sign  of 
several,  indeed  many,  different  ideas,  could  seldom  or  never 
suggest  any  thing  definite ;  but  place  it  in  a  sentence,  and  the 
context  will  enable  us  with  little  or  no  hesitation  to  attach  the 
idea  intended.  Hence  words,  by  themselves,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  pictures  of  thought,  though  in  combination  they 
certainly  are  so  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  precision  for  all  or- 
dinary purposes.  We  talk  (says  Stewart)  of  the  mechanisn  of 
speech,  but  are  apt  to  forget  the  far  more  wonderful  mechan- 
ism which  it  puts  into  action  behind  the  scene.  Whoever 
may  wish  to  see  this  curious  branch  of  the  subject  illustrated 
in  a  manner  equally  beautiful  and  philosophical  will  find  it  in 
Dugald  Stewart's  5th  Essay. 

Finally,  to  have  a  more  distinct  conception,  both  of  the  fol- 
ly and  the  danger  of  seeking  beyond  the  customary  use  of 
language  for  the  meaning  of  words,  let  one  but  consider  a  mo- 
ment what  would  be  the  effect  of  interpreting  our  laws  on 
that  principle.  It  would  require  no  gift  of  prophecy  to  fore- 
see that  in  less  than  one  year  after  such  a  system  began  to 
operate,  the  whole  structure  of  society  would  be  completely 


22  CHAPTER   II. 

found.  Consequently  we  should  be  no  nearer  the  object  of 
pursuit  at  the  end  than  at  the  beginning  of  our  labours  ;  and 
should  return  from  the  chase  of  this  ignis  fatuus,  bewildered 
and  deceived.  Such  then  being  the  probable  and  even  nec- 
essary result  of  etymological  researches,  how  unphilosophic- 
al,  how  utterly  futile  must  be  the  doctrine  we  now  oppose. 
Let  us  make  however  one  supposition  more — let  us  suppose  a 
man  so  miraculously  gifted  as  to  be  able  to  discover  the  orig- 
inal sense,  strictly  speaking,  of  a  few  words  ;  and  that  he 
were  to  construct  a  sentence  with  reference  to  that  sense  ; 
what  would  be  the  eefFect  ?  why  simply  this,  that  no  other 
mortal  living  could  guess  its  meaning. 

Lest  this  course  of  reasoning,  however,  should  not  be  equal- 
ly convincing  to  all,  I  beg  leave  to  place  the  subject  in  yet 
another  light.  It  will  be  readily  allowed  that  not  more  than 
one  in  ten  among  us  knows  any  thing  of  the  dead  languages, 
nor  one  in  a  hundred  is  familiar  with  them.  In  such  a  state 
of  things  it  follows  unavoidably  either  that  ninety-nine  out  of 
the  hundred  talk  and  write  habitually  without  understanding 
each  other  at  all — that  is  to  say  we  "  gabble  like  things  most 
brutish  ;"  or  else  we  have  some  criterion  in  regard  to  signifi- 
cation independent  of  Latin  or  Greek.  But  we  find  by  daily 
experience  that  we  do  understand  each  other — those  who  are 
not  scholars  just  as  well  as  those  who  are — consequently  the 
standard  of  meaning  must  exist  in  our  own  language  and  no 
where  else.  This  standard  is  custom  or  good  usage,  as  exem- 
plified in  approved  English  authors  ;  and  it  has  been  so  re- 
cognized by  all  writers  on  grammar  and  criticism  for  many 
years  past.  That  such  is  and  must  be  the  only  standard  is 
ably  set  forth  in  Dr.  Campbell's  "  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric"* 
and  in  various  other  established  works. 

The  diversified  significations  thus  assigned  by  usage,  have, 
with  infinite  labour,  been  sought  out  by  lexicographers,  and 
methodically  compiled  in  the  form  of  dictionaries — where 
lies  our  first  resort.  If  in  any  case  we  are  not  satisfied  with 
their  decisions  we  may  ultimately  appeal  to  authors  of  repute 
in  our  own  language  ;  but  in  no  case  whatever  to  Latin  or  any 
foreign  tongue.  There  might  be  thought  perhaps  at  first  view, 
to  be  exceptions  to  this  rule,  in  words  recently  introduced  ; 
since  fashion,  it  would  seem,  is  never  tired  of  borrowing  from 
the  French,  and  pedantry  seldom  satisfied  without  something 

*  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric.    B.  2.  chap.  1. 


CHAPTER   II.  23 

new  from  the  Latin.  But  in  truth,  even  in  these  cases  we 
could  never  feel  sure  of  getting  at  the  sense  intended,  by  re- 
sorting to  other  tongues  ;  for  any  man,  who  would  be  pedant 
enough  to  use  words  entirely  new  without  at  the  same  time 
defining  their  sense  in  plain  English,  we  may  rely  upon  it, 
would  be  fool  enough  to  use  them  improperly. 

If  I  thought  it  probable  the  foregoing  reasonings  would  yet 
leave  many  readers  unsatisfied,  the  subject  might  be  elucida- 
ted in  divers  other  ways,  especially  by  showing  how  common 
a  thing  it  is  for  a  derivative  word  to  differ  materially  in  sense 
from  its  radical,  even  when  this  radical  is  of  native  origin. 
Besides,  have  not  most  of  our  words  many  and  distinct  signi- 
fications, some  even  forty  or  fifty  ?  Is  not  their  origin  in 
numberless  cases  disputed  ?  Is  not  a  large  portion,  perhaps 
the  greater  portion  of  them,  used  metaphorically  ?  Are  they 
not,  both  in  force  and  import,  singularly  modified  by  the  con- 
text ?  But  the  arguments  against  this  whimsical  doctrine  are 
so  numerous  and  so  various  it  would  be  almost  an  endless,  and 
I  imagine  quite  a  superfluous  task  to  pursue  them  any  farther. 
The  truth  is,  however  admirable  a  contrivance  language  may 
seem  to  be,  in  the  eye  of  philosophy — as  a  means  of  expres- 
sing the  subtle  operations  of  mind — it  is  really  a  much  less 
perfect  thing  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  principal  index 
to  signification,  and  the  principal  source  of  all  variety,  is  con- 
nexion. A  word  separately  taken,  since  it  may  be  the  sign  of 
several,  indeed  many,  different  ideas,  could  seldom  or  never 
suggest  any  thing  definite ;  but  place  it  in  a  sentence,  and  the 
context  will  enable  us  with  little  or  no  hesitation  to  attach  the 
idea  intended.  Hence  words,  by  themselves,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  pictures  of  thought,  though  in  combination  they 
certainly  are  so  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  precision  for  all  or- 
dinary purposes.  We  talk  (says  Stewart)  of  the  mechanisn  of 
speech,  but  are  apt  to  forget  the  far  more  wonderful  mechan- 
ism which  it  puts  into  action  behind  the  scene.  Whoever 
may  wish  to  see  this  curious  branch  of  the  subject  illustrated 
in  a  manner  equally  beautiful  and  philosophical  will  find  it  in 
Dugald  Stewart's  5th  Essay. 

Finally,  to  have  a  more  distinct  conception,  both  of  the  fol- 
ly and  the  danger  of  seeking  beyond  the  customary  use  of 
language  for  the  meaning  of  words,  let  one  but  consider  a  mo- 
ment what  would  be  the  effect  of  interpreting  our  laws  on 
that  principle.  It  would  require  no  gift  of  prophecy  to  fore- 
see that  in  less  than  one  year  after  such  a  system  began  to 
operate,  the  whole  structure  of  society  would  be  completely 


26  CHAPTER   II. 

can  serve  at  best  to  throw  an  amusing  light  on  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  operation  of  human  fancy."  To  which  he  adds, 
"  Etymology,  if  systematically  adopted  as  a  test  of  propriety, 
would  lead  to  the  rejection  of  all  our  ordinary  modes  of 
speaking," 

Stewart  indeed  goes  the  length  of  affirming  that  such  re- 
searches are  positively  injurious.  "  I  have  hardly  met  (says 
he)  with  a  single  individual  habitually  addicted  to  them,  who 
wrote  his  own  language  with  case  and  elegance."  Some  may 
say  perhaps  that  this  is  going  too  far ;  but  certainly  that  pro- 
found metaphysician  is  not  in  the  habit  of  thinking  superfi- 
cially or  writing  carelessly  on  any  subject  In  support  of 
the  idea  that  etymology  is  worse  than  useless,  he  quotes  the 
sentiments  of  a  French  author,  which  are  still  more  emphatic- 
ally expressed,  and  which  in  substance  are  as  follow  : — "  It  is 
so  rare  that  the  etymology  of  a  word  coincides  with  its  true 
acceptation,  that  this  sort  of  research  cannot  be  justified  by 
the  pretext  that  the  sense  may  thereby  be  made  more  certain. 
Those  writers  who  are  acquainted  with  the  greatest  number 
of  tongues  are  the  very  ones  that  make  the  most  mistakes. 
Too  attentive  to  ancient  signification,  they  forget  the  actual 
import,  and  disregard  those  shades  of  meaning  which  give 
grace  and  energy  to  composition."* 

In  my  judgment  the  French  critic  has  described  the  effect 
of  such  studies  most  happily.  Nothing  I  believe  is  more 
common  among  those  who  ponder  much  on  Greek  and  Latin, 
than  to  overlook  those  "  shades  of  meaning"  here  spoken  of. 
To  mention  but  one  or  two  out  of  numberless  cases.  How 
else  could  a  learned  Professor  cast  a  most  unmerited  stigma 
on  God's  chosen  servant  David,  by  calling  him  a  "  notorious 
personage,"  intending  only  that  he  was  a  noted  one  ?  How 
else  could  that  pink  of  scholars,  the  author  of  Hermes,  by  a 
mistake  of  the  same  nature  but  reverse  effect,  convey  a  praise 
when  he  meant  a  reproach,  by  designating  the  Goths  (I  think 
it  was)  "  illustrious  barbarians  ?"  To  the  same  cause  too 
should  be  ascribed  the  phraseology,  as  it  formerly  stood,  of 
the  English  liturgy,  "  Prevent  us,  O  Lord  in  all  our  doings,  &c." 
Now  in  these,  and  a  thousand  similar  instances,  if  Latin  be 
the  standard,  scholars  are  certainly  right ;  but  if  good  usage 
or  common  acceptation  is  to  direct  us,  (I  submit  to  the  read- 
er's judgment,)  it  is  equally  certain  they  are  wrong.      Of  all 


Stewart's  5th  Essay. 


CHAPTER   H.  27 

books  extant  none  is  better  fitted  for  teaching  a  nice  discrim- 
ination in  the  use  of  words  than  "  Crabbe's  Synonymes,"  the 
whole  of  which  from  beginning  to  end  is  one  continued  illus- 
tration of  the  maxim  that  custom,  not  derivation,  is  the  only 
safe  guide.      Crabbe,  it  is  true,  after  stating  the  origin  of  a 
word,  often  gives  a  definition  resulting  from  that  origin  ;    as 
may  be  seen  by  the  word  desert  on  his  very  first  page.      But 
it  is  easy  to  perceive  in  this  as  in  most  other  cases,  that  not 
one  of  his  various  applications  is  conformable  to  the  definition. 
In  fact  he  never  intends  by  those  derivations  to  influence  pre- 
sent use.     He  knows  indeed  much  better  ;  and  in  his  book  on 
education  has  explicitly   stated  a  contrary  opinion.      "  The 
present  existing  signification  of  words  (says  he)  can  be  deriv- 
ed from  no  source  so  well  as  the  most  general  acceptation 
they  may  be  found   to  have  received  among  men  at  present. 
Remote  etymology  is   therefore  of  very  little  use  except  to 
show  us  the  mechanism  and  origin  of  language."     Thus  then 
we  have  not  only  the  express  declaration  of  this  indefatigable 
philologist,  but  also  his  entire  book  of  more  than  a  thousand 
pages,  altogether  in  our  favour. 

To  the  foregoing  authorities  may  be  added  one  other,  near- 
er home,  whose  opinion  evidently  does  not  differ — I  mean  Mr. 
John  Pickering.  From  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Essay,  pre- 
fixed to  his  Vocabulary,  especially  from  what  is  said  at  the 
1  lth  page,  it  is  plain  he  considers  present  use  as  the  only  pro- 
per standard  in  the  application  of  words.  Accordingly,  in 
examining  some  two  or  three  hundred  words  in  relation  to 
meaning,  he  brings  them  to  the  test  of  dictionaries  and  estab- 
lished writers,  without  reference  in  a  single  instance,  as  far 
as  I  perceive,  to  any  exotic  standard. 

It  would  be  easy  to  cite  many  others  on  the  same  side  j 
but  it  seems  unnecessary.  I  desire  the  reader  only  to  bear 
in  mind  that  I  have  here  quoted  nothing  casual,  incidental,  or 
obscure ;  but  the  deliberate  sentiments  of  philosophic  writers 
— of  writers  unsurpassed  by  any  in  the  whole  compass  of 
English  literature. 

What  then  shall  we  say  to  Dr.Knox,who  persists  in  affirming 
that  "  mere  English  scholars  incur  great  danger  of  misapply- 
ing words  derived  from  Greek  and  Latin  ?" — What  shall  we 
say  to  a  learned  Professor,  who  tells  us  that  some  words  can- 
not be  used  in  a  peculiarly  correct  sense  without  understanding 
Greek  ?* — Or  what  shall  we  say  to  hundreds  of  others,  who 

*  North  Am.  Rev.  vol.  2.  new  series,  p.  210. 


28  CHAPTER   II. 

do  their  best  to  propagate  the  same  scholastic  doctrine  ? — 
Shall  we  suppose  them  ignorant  of  the  true  standard  of  mean- 
ing?— Shall  we  believe  that  in  their  own  practice  they  throw 
aside  their  Johnson  and  their  Walker,  and  appeal  to  Ains- 
worth  and  Schrevelius  ? — Or  shall  we  suppose  that  they  have 
a  system  to  uphold,  which  requires  that  the  importance  of 
Greek  and  Latin  should  be  maintained  ? 

One  might  be  led  to  think  from  the  general  tenor  of  Stew- 
art's strictures  on  the  ingenious  and  amusing  work  of  Tooke, 
that  he  considered  one  of  that  author's  objects  to  be  to  estab- 
lish etymology  as  the  proper  means,  and  ancient  use  as  the 
proper  criterion  for  determining  the  actual  meaning  of  words. 
There  are,  to  be  sure,  many  passages  in  that  masterly  disqui- 
sition, which  might  seem  to  justify  the  supposition  ;  yet  it 
is  extremely  difficult  to  believe  either  that  Stewart  really  so 
construed  it,  or  that  such  was  Tooke's  intention.  If  it  was, 
his  book  becomes  a  greater  curiosity  still  ;  for  never  did  a 
writer  so  completely  frustrate  his  own  design.  He  exhibits 
to  us  in  the  clearest  light,  and  by  a  multitude  of  examples, 
the  precise  manner  in  which  a  single  Anglo-Saxon  word,  by 
successive  changes  of  application  and  of  orthography,  has 
supplied  to  our  present  language  a  variety  of  terms  differing 
most  remarkably,  both  in  form  and  import,  from  each  other, 
as  well  as  from  their  common  original.  Tookt^s  researches, 
therefore,  furnish  of  themselves  the  most  transcendant  proof 
of  the  futility  of  etymology  in  this  respect  ;  and  had  it  been 
certain  the  reader  would  have  taken  my  advice  in  referring  to 
his  writings,  I  should  have  been  content  to  rest  the  cause  on 
them  alone  without  a  single  word  in  addition. 

On  the  whole,  I  cannot  but  think  that  when  the  arguments, 
illustrations,  and  authorities  here  adduced  are  maturely  con- 
sidered, they  will  be  found  to  involve  such  various  and  forci- 
ble objections  against  the  doctrine  they  were  designed  to 
combat,  as  fully  to  satisfy  even  those  who  have  never  before 
attended  to  matters  of  this  kind  ;  and  as  to  the  learned,  they 
already  understand  the  thing  too  well  to  join  issue  on  this 
score.  If  the  reader  be  in  fact  convinced  by  what  has  been 
offered,  1  would  then  beg  him  to  reflect  how  extensively  the 
error  in  question  has  spread,  and  how  firmly  it  has  maintain- 
ed its  influence — how  constantly  it  is  employed  in  recommen- 
dation of  classical  studies,  and  how  much  it  has  been  counte- 
nanced by  scholars.  With  all  this  before  him,  he  may  be- 
come perhaps  somewhat  sceptical  whether  other  arguments  in 
behalf  of  such  studies,  to  which  he  has  hitherto  lent  a  willing 
ear,  may  not  be  equally  vulnerable. 


CHAPTER   III.  29 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  languages  no  help  to  English  Grammar. 

That  an  acquaintance  with  the  dead  languages,  especially 
the  Latin,  is  of  use  in  imparting  a  more  thorough  grammatical 
knowledge  of  our  vernacular  tongue,  is  an  opinion  coextensive 
with  that  which  formed  the  subject  of  the  last  chapter  ;  though 
if  possible  a  still  greater  fallacy.  The  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  this  error  appears  to  me  to  be, 
that  there  are  hundreds  of  men,  and  we  may  add  women, 
who,  without  any  classical  learning,  understand  their  own  lan- 
guage to  a  sufficient  degree  of  accuracy  ;  who  might  exhibit 
volumes  of  epistolary  correspondence  free  from  any  mistakes 
of  magnitude — who  moreover  are  perfectly  conscious  of  ade- 
quate proficiency  in  this  respect — yet  who  believe,  or  talk  as  if 
they  believed,  that  every  tning  depends  on  Greek  and  Latin. 
That  scholars  should  often  be  under  such  a  delusion  is  not  half 
so  extraordinary  ;  because  having  been  led  by  their  very 
scholarship  to  investigate  philosophically  their  native  speech, 
they  are  naturally  enough  seduced  into  a  belief  that  it  was 
Latin  which  taught  them  English,  though  the  most  it  ever  did, 
or  could  do,  was  to  suggest  the  study.  This  effect  unques- 
tionably is  often  produced,  and  the  effect  is  a  good  one  ;  but 
certainly  no  sound  reason  can  be  given  why  French  or  Italian 
should  not  do  as  much,  or  more,  and  with  less  sacrifice  either 
of  time  or  labour.  Besides  which,  the  end  may  be  attained, 
as  I  shall  show,  quite  as  well,  if  not  better,  without  the  aid  of 
any  foreign  language  whatever. 

The  notion  that  classical  pursuits  may  be  serviceable  in 
this  way,  has  been  countenanced,  we  all  know,  by  innumera- 
ble desultory  writers  on  the  subject  of  language  ;  and  yet 
not  one  has  ever  given  an  explanation  of  the  kind  of  aid  they 
can  supply.  It  has  indeed  been  no  where  distinctly  maintain- 
ed, of  late  years,  at  least,  that  a  man  after  having  diligently 
studied  the  best  English  works  on  grammar,  would  be  able  ei- 
ther to  speak  or  write  better  English,  by  superadding  the  know- 
ledge of  any  foreign  idiom.  But  though  not  definitely  asserted, 
the  idea  is  perpetually  inculcated  under  every  form  of  indeter- 


30  CHAPTER   III. 

minate  phraseology,  by  all  scholars,  and  by  most  teachers. 
And  yet  several  of  the  most  industrious  labourers  in  the  classic 
vineyard,  so  far  from  promising  a  harvest  of  this  kind,  have 
even  discouraged  such  expectations.  Dr.  Gregory,  for  exam- 
ple candidly  admits  that  Greek  and  Latin  have  no  such  effect ; 
and  a  writer  of  high  standing  in  scholarship  (quoted  in  the  in- 
troduction of  Ross's  Greek  Grammar)  confesses  not  only  that 
the  structure  of  our  language  may  be  well  understood,  but 
that  a  man  may  "  compose  in  English  with  force,  elegance, 
and  precision,  without  classical  learning."  This  admirer 
of  the  classics  seems  to  rest  the  cause  principally  on  the  ar- 
gument refuted  in  the  last  chapter. 

If  it  were  true  indeed,  that  the  knowledge  of  other  tongues 
had  any  efficacy  in  respect  of  grammar,  we  should  most  nat- 
urally expect  it  from  those  which  have  the  strongest  analogy 
to  our  own  ;  and  in  this  view,  almost  every  dialect  now  spok- 
en in  Europe  might  claim  an  advantage  over  Latin — for  be- 
tween that  and  English  there  is  no  affinity  whatever.  English 
is  the  simplest  form  of  speech  prevailing  in  Europe  ;  whereas 
Latin  is  far  more  complicated  than  any  of  them.  Latin  also 
is  the  most  transpositive  language  known,  exceeding  perhaps 
in  this  respect  even  the  Greek — while  ours  on  the  contrary  is 
the  least  so  of  all.  In  short,  between  English  and  Latin  there 
is  a  striking,  a  total  dissimilarity  pervading  their  whole  struc- 
ture. 

But  it  may  be  well  perhaps,  for  the  information  of  those 
who  have  never  attended  to  Latin,  (whose  time,  1  should  hope, 
has  been  better  employed,)  to  enter   a  little  into  detail  ;    be- 
cause persons  of  this  description,  by  adopting  the  opinions  of 
others  without  any  limitation,  are  the  most  apt  of  any  to  over- 
rate the  advantage  of  such  studies.     To  this  end  we  may  first 
observe,  that  in  Latin,  all  the  important  species  of  words  (or 
parts  of  speech  as  called  in  grammar,)  such  as  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  and  adjectives,  undergo  numerous  changes  of 
form  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used.  A  Latin 
noun,  for  instance,  has  six  cases,  technically  so  called,  which 
are  distinguished  for  the  most  part   by  different  terminations, 
serving  to  denote  a  few  among  the  numberless  relations  that 
may  subsist  between  the  idea  expressed  by  the  noun  and  oth- 
er ideas  embraced  in  the  sentence.     In  this  way  Latin  nouns 
usually  display  six  or  eight  variations  of  form.      But  in  Eng- 
lish all  such  relations  are  expressed,  with  one  exception  only, 
not  by  variations  of  the  noun  itself,  but  by  separate  words, 
bearing  the  name  of  prepositions,  which  effect  the  same  ob- 


CHAPTER    III.  31 

ject  with  much  less  ambiguity.  In  like  manner  Latin  pronouns 
have  six  cases  with  corresponding  changes,  and  usually  in  ad- 
dition to  these,  several  other  changes  to  mark  the  gender  ; 
whereas  English  pronouns  do  not  vary  a  quarter  so  much  nor 
in  the  same  way.  To  give  but  one  example,  our  pronoun 
this  changes  only  to  these  ;  while  the  Latin  word  of  similar 
import  has  no  less  than  fifteen  different  terminations.  With 
regard  to  adjectives,  they  retain  with  us  precisely  the  same 
form,  whatever  be  the  gender,  or  case,  or  number  ;  but  in 
Latin  most  of  them  vary  from  six  to  twelve  different  ways. 
There  are  no  words  however,  that  undergo  so  many  mutations 
as  verbs  ;  and  here  the  contrast  between  the  two  languages  is 
very  remarkable.  Latin  verbs,  in  marking  the  time  and  mode 
of  action,  and  in  superadding  other  collateral  ideas,  travel 
through  a  prodigious  circle  of  inflexions — exhibiting  seldom 
less  than  seventy  or  eighty  variations,  and  in  general  consid- 
erably over  a  hundred.  Our  verbs,  on  the  contrary,  admit 
only  four  or  five  changes  of  this  kind,  and  then  call  to  their 
aid  ten  or  twelve  short  auxiliary  verbs,  by  help  of  which  they 
are  able  to  express  not  only  an  equal  but  much  greater  num- 
ber of  accessory  ideas,  and  that  too  with  far  nicer  discrimina- 
tion than  is  practicable  in  Latin. 

From  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  more  conspicuous  and 
distinguishing  features  of  the  two  languages,  it  may  easily  be 
seen  that  Latin  proceeds  on  the  plan  of  combining  several  re- 
lated ideas  in  one  word — English,  on  that  of  separating  those 
ideas,  and  expressing  them  by  distinct  words.  Without  stop- 
ping here  to  discuss  the  comparative  advantages  of  these  dif- 
ferent modes  of  speech,  on  the  score  either  of  facility,  precis- 
ion, or  elegance,  1  shall  only  offer  an  opinion  that  ours  upon 
the  whole  is  decidedly  superior  ;  and  whoever  will  take  the 
trouble  of  perusing  carefully  and  impartially  the  celebrated 
essay  of  Dr.  Smith  on  this  subject ;  or  the  excellent  treatise 
in  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  under  the  head  of  language, 
or  even  the  inferior  article  under  a  similar  title  in  Rees',  I  ven- 
ture to  say,  will  coincide  in  that  opinion.  However,  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  two  languages  are  respectively  construct- 
ed, and  according  to  which  they  must  be  used,  being  so  rad- 
ically different,  not  to  say  repugnant  ;  and  grammar  being 
nothing  more,  as  admitted  by  all,  than  those  same  principles 
embodied  and  digested  in  the  form  of  rules,  those  rules  cannot 
in  such  a  case  possibly  resemble  each  other,  nor  of  course  af- 
ford any  reciprocal  aid.  This  conclusion  would  be  readily 
assented  to  by  any  sensible  unprejudiced  man,  even  though 


32  CHAPTER    III. 

his  knowledge  extended  no  farther  than  the  points  above 
stated.  But  let  him  spend  an  hour  or  two  over  the  Latin 
grammar,  (which  would  be  quite  enough  for  the  purpose,)  and 
his  conviction  would  be  amazingly  strengthened.  He  would 
soon  see  that  out  of  about  sixty  rules  in  that  syntax,  only 
three  or  four  could  in  any  shape  take  effect  in  our  language 
— while  all  the  rest  would  be  of  no  more  avail  than  the  rules 
of  Algebra  or  Mechanics.  Indeed,  let  him  but  imagine  them 
placed  in  an  English  grammar,  and  he  would  at  once  say  they 
were  mere  jargon.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  cast  his  eye 
over  our  own  syntax,  he  could  select  at  most  five  or  six  rules 
out  of  twenty  odd,  that  could  be  even  partially  applied  to 
Latin  ;  the  remainder  being  wholly  intractable.  Here  then 
we  have  new  and  abundant  evidence,  that  whatever  else  Latin 
may  do  for  us,  it  can  never  teach  us  English  Grammar. 

As  to  Greek,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  any  thing,  since  its 
grammatical  forms  are  well  known  to  be  yet  more  complex, 
and  therefore  more  unlike  our  own.  Dr.  Campbell's  remark 
is  then  perfectly  true,  that  "  English  has  little  or  no  affinity 
either  to  Latin  or  Greek." 

But  to  place  the  matter  in  a  somewhat  different  light,  what 
do  we  really  learn,  let  me  ask,  in  acquiring  other  languages  ? 
Nothing  more,  most  certainly,  than  new  words  and  new  modes 
of  combining  them — we  learn  only  another  manner  of  expres- 
sing the  same  idea.  To  be  sure,  after  some  progress  is  made, 
and  foreign  books  can  be  read  understandingly,  then  of 
course,  whatever  information  they  may  contain  is  opened  to 
us  ;  the  importance  of  which,  as  far  as  classic  tongues  are 
concerned,  will  be  discussed  hereafter.  At  first,  however, 
the  acquisition  is  evidently  limited,  as  just  mentioned,  to  new 
expressions,  equivalent  in  meaning  to  others  before  known — 
but  though  equivalent,  they  are  wholly  different,  and  can 
never  be  used,  if  we  wish  to  be  understood.  Now  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  conceive  how  knowledge  of  this  description  is 
to  assist  us  in  the  right  application  of  words  and  phrases  al- 
ready familiar.  A  man  conversant  with  the  mechanism  of  a 
watch — who  knows  how  all  its  parts  are  fashioned  and  con- 
nected— who  sees  whence  the  moving  power  is  derived,  and 
how  it  is  conveyed,  would  comprehend  the  instrument  nowise 
the  better  by  inspecting  a  steam  engine,  and  finding  every 
thing  to  be  different.  Just  so  is  it  with  the  English  student. 
If  he  has  thoroughly  mastered  the  rules  that  govern  his  own 
language,  as  established  by  custom,  and  compiled  by  gramma- 
rians, (which  can  be  done  only  by  consulting  these  authori- 


CHAPTER    III.  33 

ties)  he  would  have  not  a  whit  the  better  conception  of  them 
by  learning  those  of  any  other  tongue,  or  of  all  others  put 
together.  Such  a  recourse  indeed  would  more  naturally  tend 
to  mislead,  or  at  any  rate  to  confuse — It  would  much  resemble 
the  whimsical  expedient  fabulously  related  of  Demosthenes, 
who,  it  is  said,  filled  his  mouth  with  pebbles  to  assist  his  articw 
lation. 

The  numerous  traits  of  discordance  already  noticed,  as  ex- 
isting between  Latin  and  English,  though  by  no  means  all  a 
close  inspection  might  detect,  would  yet  suffice,  I  have  little 
doubt,  to  convince  any  one  who  would  give  his  mind  to  the 
subject,  that  Latin  can  be  of  no  service.  But  the  great  diffi- 
culty lies  in  inducing  people  to  reflect  on  the  subject.  The 
larger  portion,  even  of  well  informed  men,  do  but  follow  the 
opinion  of  others  in  most  things  relating  to  education. 

The  measure  before  alluded  to,  of  comparing  the  syntax  of 
the  two  languages,  would  after  all  afford  the  best  as  well  as 
the  easiest  test  that  'could  be  adopted  ;  and  if  parents  would 
only  take  the  trouble  to  do  this,  (which  would  really  occupy 
but  an  hour  or  two)  they  would  be  convinced  that  the  ques- 
tion lies  quite  within  the  scope  of  plain  common  sense  ;  while 
at  the  same  time  they  would  perceive  the  utter  absurdity  of 
supposing  that  we  speak  good  English  only  by  indulgence  of 
the  Latin.  However,  even  without  any  such  comparison, 
and  even  setting  aside  all  the  foregoing  representations  as  par- 
tial or  exaggerated,  no  matter  in  what  degree,  the  following 
conclusions  would  seem,  in  any  view  of  the  case,  both  una- 
voidable and  irresistible  ;  that  when  proper  attention  has 
been  paid  to  our  own  language,  Latin  rules  and  forms  of 
speech,  as  far  as  they  agree  with  ours,  must  be  altogether  su- 
perfluous ;  and  as  far  as  they  do  not  agree  they  cannot  be 
availed  of  ;  consequently,  in  either  case  they  must  be  useless. 
This  I  think  can  hardly  be  evaded. 

There  was  a  time,  it  is  very  true,  when  grammar  could  not 
be  learnt  but  through  the  medium  of  ancient  tongues,  or  from 
the  practice  of  speech  in  society  ;  when  no  books  of  elemen- 
tary instruction  in  English  existed  ;  when  in  short  our  mother 
tongue  was  in  a  state  of  complete  vassalage  to  Latin ;  and 
during  that  period  the  argument  before  us  had  some  weight. 
Now,  however,  the  rudiments  of  our  language  are  displayed 
in  forms  almost  as  numerous  as  the  stars  in  the  sky — every 
year  producing  some  new  compilation.  It  is  indeed  astonish- 
ing what  a  variety  of  aspects  a  language  so  little  complex 
5 


34  CHAPTER    III. 

may  be  made  to  assume — rivalling  almost  the  endless  diversi- 
ty of  combinations  which  pass  before  the  eye  in  that  beauti- 
ful instrument  of  Brewster's.  But  as  all  the  books  to  which 
we  now  allude  teach  English  by  direct  means,  teach  it  intel- 
ligibly, and  teach  it  thoroughly,  there  is  no  ground  whatever 
for  the  pretence  that  Latin  is  any  longer  necessary,  or 
even  advantageous. 

Nor  would  this  conclusion  be  at  all  weakened,  as  I  believe, 
by  appealing  to  experience  — whether  in  comparing  the  profi- 
ciency of  students  at  school,  or  the  compositions  of  authors. 
As  far  as  my  observation  has  extended  (and  1  certainly  have 
not  been  backward  in  inquiry;  lads  educated  at  Latin  schools, 
public  or  private,  do  not  evince  in  general  a  better  acquaint- 
ance with  English  grammar  than  others — perhaps  not  even  so 
good  ;  and  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  hear  parents  express 
surprise  at  their  children  knowing  so  little  of  their  own  lan- 
guage. Complaints  of  this  sort  we  know  are  not  rare.  For 
my  own  part  I  have  no  doubt  whatever,  if  an  examination 
was  instituted  between  a  dozen  boys,  after  being  three  years 
at  a  good  English  school,  and  an  equal  number  after  an  equal 
time  at  the  Latin,  that  the  former  would  discover  a  more 
philosophical  and  also  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  their  na- 
tive tongue.  It  is  to  the  purpose  also  to  remark,  that  the  two 
celebrated  teachers  formerly  spoken  of  (Barrow  and  Knox,) 
though  theoretically  ascribing  to  classical  studies  an  effect  al- 
most magical,  both  confess  that  many  of  their  pupils  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  in  Latin  were  quite  inaccurate 
in  vernacular  composition.  Experience,  therefore,  as  far  as 
relates  to  youth,  tends  to  confirm  our  doctrine  rather  than 
confute  it. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  comparison  were  made  among  au- 
thors, my  belief  is,  that  the  writings  of  men  skilled  in  classic 
tongues  would  not  be  found  peculiarly  exempt  from  grammat- 
ical imperfections.  Were  it  not  invidious,  we  might  adduce 
in  proof  the  productions  of  several  eminent  scholars  of  our 
own  country,  who,  excellent  as  they  unquestionably  are  in 
various  respects,  are  certainly  not  the  best  models  of  gram- 
mar. It  might  indeed  be  justly  remarked  of  more  than  one 
as  Mr.  Tooke  remarks  of  Harris,  "  I  say  that  a  little  more  re- 
flection and  a  great  deal  less  reading — a  little  more  attention  to 
common  sense  and  less  blind  prejudice  for  Greek  commenta- 
tors, would  have  made  him  a  much  better  grammarian." 
Then  as  regards  the  celebrated  scholars  of  England,  whole 
volumes  might  be  filled  with  extracts  of  bad  grammar.      In- 


CHAPTER    III.  36 

deed,  whoever  will  take  the  pains  to  look  over  Lowth's,  Mur- 
ray's, and  other  books  on  this  subject,  may  see  many   hun- 
dred such  examples   already  collected   by  them  to  illustrate 
their  rules  of  syntax.     I  shall  refer,  in  addition,  only  to  a  few 
passages  from  Mitford's  history  of  Greece,  (and  Mitford  is  a 
first   rate  scholar,)  most  severely  and  justly  censured  in  No. 
49  of  the  Quarterly  Review — passages  which  exhibit  not  only 
the  worst  grammar,  but  the  worst  style  imaginable  : — And  if 
any  body  will  produce  me  a  school  boy  of  fourteen  years  old, 
who  can  write  no   better,  I  will  undertake  to  prove  that  for 
every  hour  spent  on  English,  he  has  devoted  ten  to  Latin. 
When,  therefore,  we  hear  the  votaries  and  panegyrists  of  an- 
cient learning  expatiate  on  its  efficacy  in  making  skilful  gram- 
marians, we  must  bear  in  mind  that  they  have  in  view  a  de- 
gree of  perfection  which   they   themselves  do  not  attain — a 
perfection,  moreover,  not  indispensable  either  to  fame  or  ex- 
cellence.    In  fact,  the  grammatical  refinement  that  many  talk 
about,  is  an  end  hardly  worth  aiming  at,  whatever  be  the  pro- 
per means.     Such  petty  niceties  have  at  best  a  low  degree  of 
merit.      Numberless  books  of  extensive  utility,  and  even  su- 
perior worth,  have  been  written  without  their  aid — for  where 
good  sense  abounds  they  are  not  missed  ;  and  where  that  is 
wanting,  the  utmost  grammatical  precision,  even  with  elegance 
of  style  conjoined,    will  never   secure  a   lasting   reputation. 
These  observations  however  are  by  no  means  intended   to 
discourage  a  strict  adherence  to  the  genuine  idiom  of  our  na- 
tive tongue  ;    every  departure  from  which  is  in  reality  a  cor- 
ruption.    They  refer  only  to  little  punctilios,  on  the  impor- 
tance of  which  many  a   pedant  will  descant   most   volubly  ; 
who  yet  entirely  neglects  them  both  in  speaking  and  writing. 
The  considerations,  thus  far  submitted,  involve  only  the  ob- 
jection of  inutility  and  the  consequent    loss   of  time  implied 
thereby  : — But   objections  do  not  stop  here  : — There  is  much 
reason  to  believe  that  Latin  stands  in  a  position  not  merely  neu- 
tral, but  actually  hostile  to  grammatical  purity.     The  follow- 
ing extract  from  the  preface  to  Johnson's  dictionary  is  fraught 
with  sound  sense  : — "  A  mixture  of  two  languages  (says  he) 
will  produce  a  third  distinct  from  both  ;  and  they  will  always 
be  mixed,  when  the  chief  part  of  education,  and  the  most  con- 
spicuous   accomplishment  is  skill   in   ancient   or   in   foreign 
tongues.     He  that  has  long  studied  another  language  will  find 
its  words  and  combinations  crowd   upon  his  memory ;    and 
haste  and  negligence,  refinement  and  affectation,  will  obtrude 
borrowed  terms  and   exotic  expressions."     Now  this  is  per- 


36  CHAPTER    III. 

feclly  true,  and  goes  the  full  length  of  saying  that  Latin  is  in- 
jurious ;  for  when  a  foreign  mode  of  speech  is  thus  familiar 
to  the  mind,  it  will  inevitably,  though  perhaps  imperceptibly, 
blend  itself  with  our  own,  and  modify  our  forms  of  expres- 
sion. Could  the  innovation  be  restricted  to  single  words,  it 
might  be  harmless,  or  nearly  so  ;  but  when  combinations  thus 
intrude,  they  necessarily  infringe  on  the  very  structure  of 
language, and  cannot  fail  lobe  mischievous — anomalies  become 
multiplied,  and  grammar  confused.  Such  most  certainly  is 
the  tendency  ;  perhaps  the  necessary  effect.  Hence,  in  point 
of  accuracy  at  least,  the  study  of  ancient  tongues  is  not  sim- 
ply useless,  but  something  worse. 

But  after  all,  should  any  one  still  hesitate  to  allow  the  inde- 
pendence of  our  language  to  the  full  extent  here  described,  I 
beg  him  to  consult,  not  indeed  any  casual  writer,  but  certainly 
any  didactic  author,  who  has  treated  systematically  on  this 
particular  topic.  The  opinions  of  such  authors  are  indeed 
so  uniform,  and  founded  on  such  incontrovertible  arguments, 
that  it  is  really  one  of  the  most  singular  things  of  the  age — 
that  doubt  should  still  exist.  And  this  is  the  more  extraordi- 
nary, since  the  very  men  who  are  most  frequently  appealed 
to,  as  believing  in  the  efficacy  of  Latin  and  Greek,  may  often 
be  found  pursuing  a  train  of  reasoning  which  shows  them  to 
be  under  no  such  mistake.  In  a  review  of  Barrett's  Gram- 
mar, ascribed  to  Professor  Everett,  we  read  a  series  of  re- 
marks (found  here  in  the  Appendix)  on  the  structure  of  the 
dead  languages  as  compared  with  ours,  from  which  the  conclu- 
sion is  unavoidable  that  in  his  view,  Latin,  so  far  from  doing 
good,  has  done  much  positive  harm — that,  distorted  as  English 
Grammar  has  always  been,  and  is  yet, by  Latin  forms,  we  are 
at  this  very  time  teaching  our  children  little  else,  to  use  his 
own  words,  than  "  Latin  and  Greek  in  disguise."* 

So  also  Mr.  Pickering,  as  we  have  every  reason  to  believe, 
both  from  his  writings  and  his  good  sense,  is  exempt  from  the 
popular  delusion.  To  say  nothing  of  the  general  spirit  of  his 
amusing  book  before  mentioned,  he  introduces,  on  a  contested 
point  of  construction,  the  following  quotation  from  Dr.  Camp- 
bell : — "  The  argument  from  etymology  is  here  of  no  value, 
because  taken  from  the  use  of  another  language.  If  by  the 
same  rule  we  were  to  regulate  all  nouns  and  verbs  of  Latin 
original,  our  present  syntax  would  be  overturned.''''] 

*  See  note  A  at  the  end. 

\  Pickering's  Vocabulary,  page  41. 


CHAPTER    III.  37 

Now  by  all  this  we  may  see  that  on  the  topic  of  grammar, 
as  on  most  others,  our  better  scholars  understand  the  thing 
well  enough,  though  they  may  not  feel  authorised  to  break  in 
on  the  established  system,  by  a  free  avowal  of  their  senti- 
ments. In  the  minds  of  many  of  them  probably,  the  prevail- 
ing notion  on  this  subject  has  long  been  regarded,  what  Dr. 
Ash  does  not  scruple  to  call  it,  a  vulgar  error* 

To  conclude,  whoever  will  take  the  trouble  to  investigate 
the  case,  will  find  that  every  philosophical  writer  on  gram- 
mar, without  a  single  exception,  instead  of  grounding  his  pre- 
cepts on  the  Latin  idiom,  refers  expressly  to  custom,  such  as 
obtains  among  reputable  English  authors,  as  the  only  means  of 
determining  what  is  proper  or  improper  in  the  use  of  language. 
Lowth,  Murray,  Campbell,  Johnson,  and  in  short  the  whole 
circle  of  authorities, concur  in  this  as  a  leading  principle,  and 
thus  justify  in  effect,  the  main  doctrine  we  have  endeavoured 
to  elucidate.  "  Grammar  rules  (says  Rees)  have  no  other 
foundation  than  the  practice  of  those  who  speak  and  write 
the  language."  Let  scholars  then  say  what  they  please;  the 
notion  that  Greek  or  Latin  can  in  any  way  operate  as  an  aux- 
iliary to  English  grammar,  is  alike  unsupported  by  good  au- 
thority, or  by  sound  philosophy.  It  is  altogether  a  classical 
prejudice — a  mere  dogma  of  the  schools. 

It  has  now  been  made,  I  presume,  sufficiently  obvious,  that  the 
proper  use  of  our  own  language  is  not  to  be  learnt  from  an- 
cient tongues.  Whence  then,  some  may  ask,  has  arisen  the 
contrary  impression,  so  prevalent,  and  so  tenacious  ?  I  have 
before  observed  that  it  is  no  part  of  our  duty  to  trace  an  er- 
roneous sentiment  to  its  source.  Whatever  its  origin,  if  it  be 
proved  a  fallacy,  our  case  is  made  out.  But  as  an  attempt  to 
account  for  the  favourable  opinion  of  classical  learning  on  this 
score,  may  unfold  some  of  the  principal  causes  of  its  high  repu- 
tation in  other  respects,  I  am  tempted  to  stray  a  little  into  this 
inquiry.  Such  an  inquiry  cannot  be  wholly  devoid  of  inter- 
est ;  neither  is  it  difficult  of  solution.  The  matter  will  be  al- 
ready half  explained  if  we  call  to  mind  the  circumstance  of 
all  our  old  grammars  being  fashioned  after  the  Latin  exem- 
plar. Our  early  grammarians,  who  were  certainly  more  of 
scholars  than  philosophers,  and  much  better  Latin  scholars 
than  English,  finding  already  in  use  an  elaborate  scheme 
adapted  to  the  Latin  tongue,  and  presuming,  too  hastily,  that 
a  scheme  so  much  admired  would  be  the  best  pattern  for  us, 

*  Preface  to  Ash's  Grammar. 


3 97485 


38  CHAPTER    III. 

adopted  at  once  all  its  technical  terras,  and  as  far  as  possible 
its  forms  and  classifications  ;  thereby  forcing  our  language 
under  restraints  and  shackles,  to  which  its  genius  was  wholly 
repugnant.  It  is  unquestionably  true,  as  Dr.  Wilson  well  ob- 
serves, that  if  the  names  of  modes,  tenses,  and  cases,  had  not 
been  taken  from  the  ancients,  our  elementary  books  would 
never  have  been  burdened  with  them  to  the  ridiculous  extent 
they  formerly  were  ;  and  all  writers  seem  now  agreed  that  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  the  language  was  for  years,  or  rather 
for  ages,  greatly  retarded  by  that  unfortunate  attachment  to 
the  Latin  model. 

Things  remained  in  this  state  for  a  long  space  of  time,  till 
at  length  Dr.  Lowth  turned  his  attention  to  the  subject  ;  and 
by  a  little  work  of  his  own,  about  fifty  years  ago,  presented  a 
more  rational,  because  a  more  simple,  view  of  his  native 
tongue.  He  saw  plainly  that  nothing  but  classic  prejudice 
had  so  long  held  us  in  the  trammels  of  the  Latin  ;  for  he  says 
explicitly  in  his  preface,  that  "  what  is  called  learning,  or  an 
acquaintance  with  ancient  authors"  will  not  help  us  in  the 
least. 

It  is  a  very  extraordinary  yet  well  known  fact,  that  down 
nearly  to  the  period  last  mentioned,  English  grammar  formed 
no  part  of  a  regular  education.  It  was  not  taught  separately, 
nor  by  rule  ;  but  only  incidentally,  as  it  stood  connected  with, 
and  illustrative  of  the  Latin.  What  were  at  that  time  and  are 
now  called  grammar  schools  in  England,  were  founded  for 
purposes  of  instruction  exclusively  in  the  dead  languages — 
then  considered  almost  the  only  thing  worth  knowing.  The 
vernacular  tongue  was  never  admitted  within  their  walls,  nor 
is  it  at  this  day.  The  cause  of  all  this  however  is  not  \ery 
mysterious.  The  great  schools  and  colleges,  owing  as  they 
did,  if  not  their  origin,  at  least  all  their  extension  and  splen- 
dour, to  classic  predilection,  lent  their  whole  influence  (power- 
ful indeed  it  has  been)  to  foster  those  partialities  on  which 
alone  their  support  depended.  A  special  article  in  their 
creed  was,  that  the  dead  languages  constitute  the  only  proper 
foundation  for  an  accurate  knowledge  of  English  ;  and  that  if 
those  were  thoroughly  learnt  at  school  or  college,*  the  latter 
might  be  attained  any  where  and  at  any  time.  So  assiduous- 
ly were  notions  of  this  sort  propagated  by  some  thousands  of 
graduates  annually  emerging  from  academic  groves,  that  in 
course  of  time  they  became  diffused  through  every  stream 
and  rivulet  of  society — Hence  the  total  neglect  of  the  ver- 
nacular tongue,  which,  from  being  thought  unworthy  of  culti- 


CHAPTER    III.  39 

vation,  or  even  of  analysis,  was  kept  in  a  state  of  rudeness 
altogether  anomalous  amid  the  general  improvements  of  the 
age.  "  Nothing  was  learnt  (says  Elphinstone,  in  alluding  to 
the  schools  of  that  period)  that  was  not  Greek  or  Latin — nor 
could  aught  be  grammar  but  the  grammar  of  those  languages." 
To  crown  the  whole,  not  only  were  the  elements  of  English 
to  be  learnt,  if  learnt  at  all,  through  the  medium  of  Latin  ; 
but  even  the  grammar  rules  of  Latin  were  written  and  taught 
in  Latin  xoords  ;  and  to  make  the  absurdity  yet  more  glaring, 
those  rules  were  many  of  them  in  Latin  verse.  Jf  the  reader 
will  believe  it,  this  same  preposterous  mode  of  teaching  Latin 
continues  to  this  day  in  the  three  great  schools  of  England, 
where  it  is  held  fast  bound  by  ancient  forms  and  statutes, 
though  long  since  expelled,  by  the  dictates  of  common  sense, 
from  every  private  establishment  in  the  kingdom — and  it  is 
this  very  mode  which  Dr.  Knox  applauds  so  extravagantly, 
in  his  book  on  education,  as  the  perfection  of  mental  disci- 
pline. 

It  would  be  impossible,  perhaps,  to  point  out  another  so  sig- 
nal example  of  bigotry  in  matters  of  education,  since  the 
world  began  ;  though  to  the  eye  of  posterity,  the  veneration 
prevailing  in  our  day  for  classical  learning,  may  seem  a  par- 
allel. The  ancients  themselves,  enchained  as  they  were  by 
prejudices  of  almost  every  kind,  are  by  no  means  chargeable 
with  the  egregious  error  of  neglecting  their  own  language  for 
the  study  of  others — the  principles  and  structure  of  their  ver- 
nacular tongue  were  ever  the  first  and  chief  object  of  youth- 
ful instruction. 

The  remarkable  degree  of  infatuation  just  alluded  to,  seems 
to  us,  at  the  distance  of  little  more  than  half  a  century,  scarce- 
ly credible — Vet  is  it  matter  of  history,  and  might  teach  a 
salutary  lesson  if  we  chose  to  rtad  it.  There  can  be  no  won- 
der, under  the  circumstance  described,  that  English  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  public  schools  ; — nor  is  it  surprising  that  al- 
though numberless  writers  must  have  analysed  the  language 
for  their  own  purposes  of  authorship,  none  were  induced  to 
compile  a  rational  system  of  rules  for  the  use  of  others.  The 
formularies  on  the  Latin  model,  beforementioned,  went  little 
farther  than  the  classification  and  derivation  of  words  ;  and 
thus  while  English  grammar  was  groaning  under  the  weight  of 
Latin  encumbrances,  its  syntax  was  not  even  reduced  to 
rules.  We  see  also  that  till  within  a  few  years  of  our  own 
time,  it  was  taught  in  no  other  way  and  for  no  other  purpose 
than  to  explain  the  Latin.     Now  here  surely  was  a  powerful 


40  CHAPTER    III. 

cause,  if  not  alone  a  sufficient  one,  for  the  supposed  influence 
of  the  Roman  tongue. 

Since  the  period  when  Lowth  wrote,  Priestley,  Murray, 
and  numberless  others,  have  presented  the  subject  under  new 
and  various  forms — retrenching  many  classic  superfluities  and 
abounding  in  explanatory  observations  ;  yet  all  too  much  re- 
sembling some  imperfect  cast  from  the  Latin  mould.  In  none 
do  we  find  that  degree  of  simplicity,  nor  those  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  the  English  idiom,  which,  since  Tooke's  re- 
searches, we  had  every  reason  to  expect — which  Mr. 
Everett  has  so  well  imagined,  and  might,  if  he  chose,  so  well 
supply.  In  short,  a  good  English  grammar  is  yet  a  desidera- 
tum. Among  the  few  who  have  thrown  off  all  scholas- 
tic bias  and  examined  the  thing  philosophically,  is  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Wilson  of  Philadelphia,  whose  learned  essay  on  gram- 
matical science  exhibits  in  high  relief  the  singular  contrast 
between  the  Latin  and  our  own.  A  more  thorough,  ingenious, 
and  in  all  respects  satisfactory  work,  is  perhaps  no  where  to 
be  found.  Mr.  Noah  Webster  is  another,  who  has  pursued 
his  reseaches  in  this  walk  of  literature,  quite  unfettered  by 
authority.  His  excellent  dissertations  contain  abundant  proof 
that  English  has  in  reality  little  or  nothing  in  common  with 
the  Latin.  These  two  writers  may  be  xery  advantageously 
consulted  by  any  who  wish  to  investigate  the  subject  more 
closely — as  also  an  admirable  treatise  in  the  Edin.  Ency.  un- 
der the  head  of  Grammar. 

The  next  cause  I  shall  mention  as  having  contributed  to 
give  an  importance  to  Latin  in  this  respect,  is  the  circumstance 
that  many  of  our  words  had  their  origin  in  that  language. 
From  this  single  circumstance  it  was  natural  enough  to  infer, 
on  a  superficial  view,  and  unquestionably  it  has  been  by  thou- 
sands, that  our  grammar  likewise  must  be  derived  from  the 
Latin  ;  or  at  any  rate  must,  somehow  or  other,  be  dependant 
thereon  :  But  nothing  could  be  more  delusive  than  such  an 
inference.  It  is  bottomed  on  the  idea,  that,  in  adopting  new 
words,  we  must  adopt  at  the  same  time  new  modes  of  com- 
bining them,  which  is  altogether  preposterous.  If  such  a 
practice  were  followed,  the  scheme  of  every  modern  tongue 
would  be  reduced  to  a  perfect  chaos — to  a  heterogeneous  as- 
semblage of  discordant  combinations  totally  unsusceptible  of 
rule  or  method.  Indeed  there  could  be  no  such  thing  as  gram- 
mar in  a  language  so  made  up,  any  more  than  there  could  be 
law  in  a  country  where  every  new  emigrant  was  permitted  to 
bring  a  new  code.      To  ascribe  any  influence  to  Latin,  there- 


CHAPTER    III.  41 

fore,  from  a  notion  of  this  kind,  was  engrafting  one  error  on  a 
still  greater  one — a  morbid  scion  on  a  rotten  stock. 

But  the  utility  of  the  dead  languages  in  point  of  grammar, 
as  far  as  the  idea  is  entertained  by  men  of  letters  particularly, 
is  not  unfrequently  founded  on  a  fallacy  of  yet  another  kind. 
They  think  that  no  language  can  be  well  understood  without 
some  knowledge  of  what  is  termed  universal  or  philosophical 
grammar — an  unfortunate  appellation,  to  be  sure,  where  phi- 
losophy has  had  so  little  to  do.  This  science,  if  indeed  it  de- 
serve the  name,  lies  deep  in  metaphysics.  Its  object  is  to  in- 
vestigate the  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  the  diversified 
structure  of  different  dialects  ;  and  further,  to  ascertain  both 
the  abstract  nature  of  their  several  species  of  words,  and  the 
sort  of  relation  that  subsists  between  them.  The  ultimate  end 
is  to  discover  by  these  means  what  general  principles,  if  any, 
are  common  to  all  languages.  Speculations  of  this  nature 
have  no  less  occupied  the  minds  of  modern  than  of  ancient 

f)hilologists.  But  their  inquiries  being  chiefly  confined  to  the 
earned  tongues,  and  those  of  modern  Europe,  have  been  too 
limited  to  elicit  general  truths — their  induction  has  been 
grounded  on  much  too  narrow  a  basis  : — Accordingly,  many 
principles  deduced  by  them  as  universal,  fail  entirely  on  ap- 
plication to  dialects  more  recently  analysed — a  fact  sufficient- 
ly evinced  by  the  forms  of  speech  (to  say  nothing  of  other 
examples)  existing  among  the  aborigines  of  our  own  country, 
as  lately  displayed  in  various  publications.  These  forms  of 
speech  not  only  exhibit  features  altogether  unknown  in  culti- 
vated tongues,  but,  what  was  less  to  be  expected,  they  possess 
powers,  it  would  seem,  in  many  respects  superior.  The  multi- 
form inflexions  of  Greek  and  Latin,  hitherto  the  delight  of  schol- 
ars,and  the  result, as  they  have  always  said,  of  matchless  ingenu- 
ity and  refinement,  dwindle  to  nothing  in  comparison.  Now 
the  discovery  of  such  unlooked-for  peculiarities,  such  more 
than  classical  excellences,  affords  reasonable  ground  to  an- 
ticipate, that  in  proportion  as  inquiries  of  this  nature  are  ex- 
tended, what  were  supposed  to  be  universal  principles  will 
gradually  disappear,  and  at  length  perhaps  entirely  vanish. 
So  that  universal  grammar,  which  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years  has  puzzled  the  minds  of  the  studious,  may  prove  in 
the  sequel,  a  mere  nonentity.  Ere  long,  perhaps,  it  will  de- 
scend to  the  same  tomb  of  oblivion  with  the  philosopher's 
stone,  and  the  grand  panacea — but  with  this  difference  in 
their  history,  that  these  were  always  believed  to  exist  though 
6 


42  CHAPTER    HI. 

never  found,  while  that  was  thought  to  be  found,  yet  never  ex- 
isted. A  writer  in  the  North  American  Review,  sensible,  ap- 
parently, that  scholarship  has  run  wild  in  this  field  of  specula- 
tion, acknowledges  "  we  have  much  to  learn  on  the  subject 
of  universal  grammar  j"  but  according  to  my  notions,  all  we 
have  to  learn  is,  that  there  is  no  such  thing.  Dr.  Wilson  does 
not  hesitate  to  call  it  a  chimera — and  Campbell  says  much 
the  same.* 

Perhaps,  however,  some  would  contend  that  the  object  of 
this  science  is  to  determine  as  well  the  points  wherein  lan- 
guages differ,  as  wheiein  they  agree.  If,  indeed,  this  be  the 
case,  or  as  far  as  it  is,  no  science  was  ever  in  a  more  flourish- 
ing state. 

It  was,  unquestionably,  those  assumed  universal  principles, 
on  which  we  have  just  remarked,  which  Dr.  Beattie  had  in 
mind  (and  so  with  other  writers)  in  saying  that  "  the  gram- 
matical art  cannot  be  so  well  learnt  from  modern  as  from  an- 
cient tongues."  But  as  in  fact  there  are  few  principles  of  that 
nature,  probably  none  at  all,  the  expression  becomes  nugatory 
— nor  would  it  be  true,  if  there  were  ever  so  many — because 
whatever  principle  be  universal,  must  of  course  be  found  in 
our  language  as  in  all  others.  The  Doctor's  notion  therefore 
is,  in  either  view,  but  a  sprig  of  error  plucked  from  the  clas- 
sic stock. 

There  is  yet  another  circumstance  by  which  the  idea  of 
classic  aid,  in  respect  of  grammar,  has  been  greatly  strength- 
ened. It  is  an  excellent  remark  of  Bishop  Hurd's,  and  none 
the  worse  for  wanting  novelty,  that  "  the  source  of  bad  crit- 
icism, as  universally  of  bad  philosophy,  is  the  abuse  of 
words."  Much  akin,  if  not  precisely  the  same,  is  the  influ- 
ence of  terms — the  real,  though  secret  origin  of  mistakes  innu- 
merable in  all  departments  of  science,  and  in  this  among  the 
rest.  The  term  grammar,  having  been  appropriated  to  de- 
note that  systematic  arrangement  of  the  elements  of  speech, 
and  that  assemblage  of  rules,  which  teach  its  proper  use, 
men  have  been  led  to  believe  that  the  thing  itself  must  in  all 
cases  be  the  same,  or  nearly  so.  But  this  is  a  great  mistake 
— Grammar  is  one  thing  in  Latin,  another  in  Greek,  and  a  still 
different  thing  in  English,  and  every  other  dialect.  In  some 
languages,  indeed,  the  Chinese  for  example,  the  very  phrases 
we   use  in   grammatical  treatises  (modes,  tenses,  cases,  &c.) 


*  Campbell's  Rhetoric,  B.  1.  chap.  4. 


CHAPTER    IV.  43 

which  make  so  great  a  figure  in  Latin,  and  have  caused  so 
much  confusion  in  English,  would  be  totally  without  meaning  ; 
because  nothing  there  exists  to  which  they  could  be  applied. 
The  grammatical  art  is  in  fact  a  distinct  thing  in  every  lan- 
guage ;  often,  no  doubt,  having  many  points  of  resemblance, 
but  quite  as  often,  none  at  all. 

To  the  various  causes  here  enumerated,  several  others  might 
be  added  ;  but  every  reflecting  reader  must  ere  this  be  fully 
satisfied,  that  the  prevailing  classical  opinion  on  this  subject, 
may  be  abundantly  accounted  for  without  supposing  it  has 
any  foundation  in  truth.  He  may  at  the  same  time  see  a  lit- 
tle how  it  is  that  a  whole  system  has  been  entailed  on  the  pres- 
ent generation,  which  even  to  our  grandsires  must  have  been 
an  onerous  burthen. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  dead  languages  no  benefit  to  style. 

The  topic  next  proposed  for  consideration  is  the  alleged 
tendency  of  the  languages  to  infuse  grace  and  elegance  into 
English  composition  ;  or  as  the  phrase  goes  to  give  a  polish  to 
our  English. 

This  idea  under  one  form  or  another  we  find  almost  invari- 
ably appended  to  every  notice  of  the  classic  tongues ;  and 
it  is  done  with  less  scruple,  because  the  constituents  of  style 
being  in  their  very  nature  occult,  and  perhaps  undefinable, 
any  thing  may  be  either  affirmed  or  denied  of  it,  without 
much  hazard.  To  discover  the  ultimate  principles  of  beauty 
in  any  class  of  objects,  natural  or  artificial,  has  hitherto  baf- 
fled the  most  ingenious  and  most  philosophic  inquirers  ;  and 
in  all  that  relates  to  style,  their  failure  has  been  more  com- 
plete than  perhaps  any  where  else.  But  I  would  ask  the 
reader  if  it  ever  has  been  explained  to  him,  in  what  way 
Latin  carries  on  the  polishing  operation.  For  my  part  I  have 
never  had  the  good  fortune  to  hear  or  see  any  thing  satisfac- 
tory on  this  head  ;  though  not  for  want  of  search  or  inquiry. 
But  let  us  endeavour  to  ascertain  what  the  argument  really 
means,  and  how  far  it  is  valid.     The  word  polish,  as  also  its 


44  CHAPTER    IV. 

synonyme  rejine  (the  favourite  terms  on  such  occasions)  we  all 
know  have  only  a  metaphorical  application  to  language;  and 
their  meaning  is  to  improve,  or  make  better.  With  regard  to 
improvement,  every  body  knows  that  in  point  of  copiousness 
qui*  language  is  indebted  for  its  unrivalled  superiority,  to 
many  others,  and  to  Latin  among  the  rest.  For  the  last  cen- 
tury, however,  few  new  obligations  have  been  incurred,  and 
in  future  there  is  likely  to  be  still  less.  English  has  long  been 
equally  copious  with  the  Latin,  and  indeed  much  more  so. 

What  is  meant  by  the  argument  in  question,  is  not  that  our 
style  may    be  improved  by  the  adoption  of  new  words,  for 
this  is    now   deemed   inadmissible,  except  in   extraordinary 
cases.     It  is  meant  only,  as  we  may  presume,  that  a  familiar- 
ity with  Latin  will  enable  us  to  use  our  own  language,  such  as 
it  is,  with   more  propriety    and  elegance — a  desideratum  no 
doubt ;  though  in  what  way  Latin  is   to  teach  this  better  use 
of  English,  1  would  very  willingly  be  informed.      One  thing 
that  may  be  confidently  affirmed  is,  that  the  promised  amel- 
ioration cannot  consist  in  a  nicer  adaptation  of  words  to  ideas  ; 
for  it  has  been  already  proved,  that  the  true  import  of  words, 
in  any  of  their   various  applications,  cannot  be  sought  for  in 
Latin.     As  little  can  it  consist  in  a  more  suitable  or  more  ele- 
gant arrangement  ;    for  this  falls  within  the  province  of  our 
grammar,  which  has  been  likewise  shown  to  be  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the   Roman   tongue,  and   remarkably    dissimilar. 
It  is  therefore,  neither  in  the  choice  of  terms,  nor  in  their  col- 
location, that  Latin  can  help  us.     But  it  is  precisely  on  these 
two  particulars   and  on  nothing  else,  that  perspicuity,  force, 
and  accuracy,  wholly  depend.      And  does   not   elegance,  I 
may    ask,   and   every   other   quality  of  style  depend  on  the 
same  ?     If  not,  I  should  be  glad  to  know  of  what   elements 
they  are  composed.     In  my  view  of  the  subject,  the  question 
of  stjde  is  very  nearly  settled  by  the  preceding  discussions  on 
grammar  and  etymology. 

Let  us  see,  however,  what  are  the  means  by  which  ancient 
tongues  are  said  to  effect  the  supposed  improvement.  To  take 
the  words  of  one  of  their  warmest  admirers,  it  is  done  "  by 
imbibing  the  spirit,  and  by  imitating  the  beauties  and  the  har- 
mony of  ancient  writers."  This  is  the  sort  of  phraseology 
commonly  used.  But  classical  men  certainly  ought  to  know, 
and  those  who  mingle  the  smallest  portion  of  philosophy  with 
their  scholarship  do  know,  that  what  are  esteemed  beauties  in 
the  dialects  of  Greece  and  Rome,  cannot,  for  the  most  part, 
be  imitated  in  modern  tongues  ;    nor  even  those  of  one  mod- 


CHAPTER    IV.  45 

em  language  by  another.  This  I  say,  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
known  to  scholars.  It  was  well  known  to  their  great  file 
leader,  Dr.  Knox,  and  is  candidly  acknowledged  by  him  in 
his  Essays,  though  very  likely  not  in  his  book  on  education. 
"  The  matter  (says  he)  may  be  preserved,  the  ideas  exhibited 
— but  the  manner,  the  style,  the  beauties  of  diction,  which 
constitute  more  than  half  the  excellence  of  the  classics,  can 
seldom  be  transferred  to  modern  tongues."*  The  inflections  of 
Latin  words,  so  prodigiously  admired  by  some  folks,  it  is  evi- 
dently out  of  our  power  to  imitate,  for  we  have  nothing  like 
them.  The  most  that  is  feasible,  is  to  copy  the  Latin  mode 
of  arrangement ;  and  this  we  see  often  accomplished,  though 
always  attended  with  the  same  constraint  and  awkwardness 
as  mimicry  of  personal  manners.  In  no  case  can  it  be  grace- 
ful, and  as  far  as  indulged  in,  just  so  far  will  ease,  elegance, 
and  taste,  desert  the  English  page.  Every  semblance  of 
beauty  will  vanish,  and  it  will  be  well  if  much  of  the  sense  do 
not  vanish  likewise.  Let  any  one  read  a  dozen  pages  in 
Gordon's  translation  of  Tacitus,  and  he  will  see  the  folly  of 
that  species  of  imitation.  To  give  those  unacquainted  with 
the  subject  some  idea  of  the  Latin  form  of  sentence,  we  may 
take  the  following  specimen  from  the  work  just  named — "  To 
Pallus,  who  was  by  Claudius  declared  to  be  the  deviser  of 
the  scheme,  the  ornaments  of  the  pretorship,  and  three  hun- 
dred thousand  crowns,  were  adjudged  by  Bareas  Soranus,  con- 
sul designed."  Or  this,  "  still  to  be  seen  are  the  Roman 
standards  in  the  German  groves,  there  by  me  hung  up."  Or 
the  following  from  a  translation  of  Homer  ;  "  Tepolemus,  the 
race  of  Hercules,  brave  in  battle  and  great  in  arms,  nine 
ships  led  to  Troy,  with  magnanimous  Rhodians  filled."  Well 
may  Tytler,  in  his  elegant  essay  on  translation,  call  this  barba- 
rous— yet  in  nothing  but  such  cruel  distortion  of  sentence  can 
either  Latin  or  Greek  be  imitated.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
conceive  that  the  case  admits  of  any  thing  more  ;  and  surely 
to  dress  up  English  after  this  fashion,  is  like  attiring  a  modern 
belle  in  the  ruff  and  stays  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  or  a  modern 
soldier  in  a  coat  of  armour.  If  however  more  be  practica- 
ble and  at  the  same  time  expedient,  scholars  will  be  kind 
enough,  I  hope,  to  tell  us  in  plain  terms  what  it  is. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  would  be  absurd  to  deny 
that  the  learned  languages  have  charms  of  various  kinds  : 


*  Knox's  Essay,  No.  159. 


46  CHAPTER   IV. 

though  we  may  safely  say  that  to  discern  and  relish  them,  re- 
quires a  proficiency  that  not  one  in  a  hundred  attains  at  Col- 
lege, nor  one  out  of  ten  who  pursue  the  study  in  after  years. 
The  fact  is,  each  and  every  language  may  boast  of  some  traits 
of  perfection,  not  found  in  so  great  a  degree,  or  not  at  all,  in 
any  other.  Each  has  peculiar  forms  of  construction,  which 
strike  a  foreign  student  agreeably,  chiefly  because  they  are 
novel  ; — because  he  sees  the  same  end  accomplished  by  new 
means — by  an  apparatus  entirely  different  from  his  own. 
This  pleasing  effect,  according  to  Sir  W.  Jones,  is  greater  from 
the  Sanscrit,  than  from  Greek  or  Latin  ;  and  for  that  reason, 
it  may  be,  more  than  for  any  other,  he  thought  it  superior  to 
both.  He  thought  the  same  of  the  Arabic,  as  others  again 
have  of  the  Persian.  So  also  that  eminent  linguist,  Mr.  Du- 
ponceau,  is  enraptured  with  the  native  idiom  of  the  Delaware 
Indians,  which  superabounds,  it  seems,  in  beauty  or  novelty 
of  the  true  classic  mould.  "  The  Greek  is  admired  (says  he) 
for  its  compounds,  but  what  are  they  to  those  of  the  In- 
dians f  Indeed,  if  a  systematic  structure,  highly  compound- 
ed and  inflected,  be  admitted  the  criterion  of  abstract  beauty, 
(as  scholars  have  generally  contended,)  classic  tongues  will 
bear  no  comparison  with  the  unpolished  dialect  of  our  tawny 
inhabitants  of  the  forest,  or  even  that  of  the  sooty  tribes  of 
Africa.  Nor  could  these  perhaps,  vie  at  all  with  the  written 
language  of  China.*  But  in  all  such  cases,  I  conceive  novel- 
ty to  be  the  leading  principle  by  which  the  taste  of  a  foreigner 
is  excited.  As  viewed  by  a  native,  the  graces  of  languages 
are  referable  to  various  other  principles,  and  more  important 
ones,  especially  that  of  association  ;  though  novelty  perhaps 
will  always  come  in  for  a  share. 

Adverting  again  for  a  moment  to  imitation — now  and  then 
some  over-zealous  defender  of  the  system  will  carry  the  joke 
so  far  as  to  tell  us  that  we  should  follow  the  ancients  in  their 
manner  of  thinking — but  the  fate  of  Aristotle's  syllogisms,  and 
Plato's  phantasms  is  a  loud  warning  against  the  advice  of  such 
enthusiasts. 

With  regard  in  the  next  place,  to  the  harmony  of  classic 
tongues,  nothing  is  more  extraordinary  than  to  see  this  so  con- 
stantly held  up  as  exquisite  and  unrivalled,  when  scholars 
themselves  are  not  agreed  even  in  what  it  consists.  This  very 
harmony,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  has  been  the  source  of  per- 


See  Note  B.  in  the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER   IY.  47 

petual  discord  among  the  learned  ever  since  the  revival  of  let- 
ters. They  know  neither  what  it  is,  nor  what  it  was  :  some 
say  it  depended  on  length  of  syllables  ;  some  on  accent  ;  oth- 
ers say  on  both  ;  and  others  again  on  neither.  But,  as  it 
happens,  all  admit  it  was  a  very  different  thing  from  what  we 
realize  and  admire  in  modern  tongues,  and  depending,  as  Mr. 
Adams  observes,  on  different  principles.  How  then,  in  the 
name  of  common  sense,  can  it  be  imitated  in  English  ?  It  is 
well  known,  indeed,  that  the  whole  scheme  of  Prosody  taught 
in  our  schools,  and  which  boys  are  compelled  to  learn,  (as  far 
as  its  inherent  mystery,  and  absurdity  will  permit)  is  a  mere 
hypothesis — and  we  know  further,  that  in  the  opinion  of  those 
who  have  examined  it  most  thoroughly,  and  written  most 
ably,  it  is  a  false  hypothesis.  Not  to  enlarge  on  the  topic 
here,  I  would  merely  ask  how  it  is  possible  so  much  as  to  con- 
ceive of  such  a  quality  as  harmony,  where  the  true  pronun- 
ciation and  sound  of  a  language  are  confessedly  lost,  without 
a  vestige  remaining.  And  further,  such  mighty  pretensions 
to  harmony  are  nowise  reconcileable  with  another  branch  of 
the  same  system — the  received  theory  I  mean,  of  ancient  ac- 
cents— for  if  this  theory  be  true,  (which  by  the  way  I  do  not 
believe  a  word  of)  those  languages,  instead  of  being  melodi- 
ous, must  have  been  the  most  miserable  sing-song  that  ever 
was  spoken.  Be  all  this  as  it  may,  however,  there  is  not  the 
least  reason  to  suppose,  that  Homer  or  Virgil  had  at  their 
command  any  greater  resources  in  this  way  than  Pope  or 
Racine — or  that  they  used  what  they  had  with  any  better 
effect. 

But  because  modern  tongues  are  incapable  of  exhibiting 
beauties  of  a  similar  kind,  are  we  hence  to  infer  that  taste  is 
excluded  ?  By  no  means.  Their  powers  are  yet  more  ex- 
tensive, and  their  graces  more  pleasing,  as  is  evinced  by  num- 
berless productions  in  our  own  language.  Pope's  Iliad,  for 
example,  contains  a  thousand  captivating  charms  of  expres- 
sion which  not  Homer  himself  could  have  displayed  in  Greek, 
nor  Virgil  in  Latin.  Do  we  want  authority  for  this  opinion  ? 
—  we  have  it,  among  others,  from  the  pen  of  an  elegant  crit- 
ical writer  on  the  subject  of  translation.  "  It  would  be  end- 
less (says  he)  to  point  out  all  the  instances  in  which  Pope  has 
improved  on  the  thought  and  the  expression  of  the  original. 
Even  its  highest  beauties  receive  additional  lustre  from  the 
pen  of  this  admirable  translator."  Dr.  Gregory  also  remarks 
on  this  same  version,  that  it  is  "  richer  in  every  poetic  beauty 
than  the  original."     Quotations  of  a  similar  character  relating 


48  CHAPTER    IV. 

to  various  modern  writers,  both  in  poetry  and  prose,  might  be 
multiplied  almost  indefinitely.  The  whole  matter  in  debate 
too  is  susceptible  of  a  much  fuller  elucidation  than  our  limits 
will  permit. 

Now  that  poetry  has  been  touched  upon,  we  may  glance  a 
moment  at  the  effect  of  classical  studies  on  poetic  imagination 
— and  the  following  extract  from  Bishop  Hurd's  Essays  will 
place  the  matter  in  its  proper  light.  The  author  is  speaking 
of  the  natural  proneness  to  take  a  tincture  from  the  writers  we 
are  accustomed  to  read,  and  he  makes  these  reflections  : — 
"  Hence  a  certain  constrained,  and  unoriginal  air,  in  some  de- 
gree or  other,  in  every  genius  thoroughly  disciplined  by  a 
course  of  learned  education — which  by  the  way  leads  to  a 
question  not  very  absurd  in  itself,  however  paradoxical  it  may 
seem,  viz.  whether  the  usual  forms  of  learning  be  not  rather 
injurious  to  the  true  poet,  than  really  assisting  him."*  This 
question,  he  goes  on  to  debate  at  too  great  length  to  be  here 
copied  ;  but  the  conclusion  at  which  he  arrives,  (the  great 
point  for  us)  is,  that  such  studies  are  absolutely  injurious — and 
among  his  reasons,  the  principal  one  is,  (which  the  reader 
will  keep  in  mind  I  hope)  that  the  powers  of  invention  are 
checked  by  the  perpetual  exercise  of  memory.  He  instances 
in  particular,  the  poetic  genius  of  Addison,  as  suffering  from 
this  cause,  and  so  no  doubt  it  did.  Indeed,  the  effect  is  vis- 
ible in  a  large  majority  of  modern  poets;  who  instead  of  giv- 
ing wing  to  imagination,  and  rambling  freely  through  the  re- 
gions of  fancy,  have  contented  themselves  with  hovering 
around  the  ancient  votaries  of  Apollo — with  culling  out  their 
petty  conceits,  and  grouping  them  anew.  Nor  is  Hurd  alone 
in  this  opinion.  Those  great  German  critics,  Brucker,  and 
Schlegel,  the  French  critic,  Sismonde,  with  many  more,  have 
reasoned  after  the  same  manner  ;  and  we  have  Spence's  au- 
thority for  saying  that  Pope  "  thought  himself  in  some  re- 
spects better  for  not  having  had  a  regular  education."!  And 
yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  we  find  a  learned  professor  of 
our  time,  urging  the  necessity  of  going  deeper  into  Greek  for 
the  very  purpose  of  "  obtaining  for  our  country  a  higher 
classical  and  poetical  character." — {North  American  Review, 
No.  28.  page  213.) 

Let  us  turn  now  to  some  arguments  on  the  classic  side,  of  a 
more  practical  nature. 

*  Hurd's  Works,  vol.  2.  page  220. 
t  Spence's  Anecdotes. 


CHAPTER    IV.  4$ 

There  is  one  circumstance  so  emphatically  dwelt  upon  in 
proof  of  the  refining  properties  of  Latin,  as  to  deserve  par- 
ticular attention — which  is,  that  the  major  part  of  those  who 
have  written  well  in  English,  have  been  more  or  less  acquaint- 
ed with  classic  tongues.  This,  as  a  mere  fact,  may  be  con- 
ceded, yet  the  conclusion  usually  drawn  from  it  denied;  for  I 
beg  leave  to  ask  if  the  same  may  not  be  said  of  bad  writers, 
as  well  as  of  good  ;  and  which,  I  pray  you,  are  the  roost  nu- 
merous ?  If  the  bad  predominate,  as  many  think,  the  influ- 
ence is  by  no  means  favourable  to  scholarship ;  for  the  chance 
is  they  would  have  done  better  without  it.  Indeed,  several 
might  be  named,  whose  genius  and  acquirements  were  such 
as  would  assuredly  have  placed  them  high  on  the  roll  of  fame, 
had  they  not  wilfully  neglected  the  cultivation  of  taste,  in  their 
native  idiom,  to  chase  the  phantom  on  classic  ground. 

In  some  departments  of  literature,  that  of  belles-lettres  par- 
ticularly, no  doubt  the  most  celebrated  authors  were  adepts  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  But  it  should  be  remembered,  at  the  same 
time,  that  they  were  men  endowed  by  nature  with  extraordi- 
nary talents — that  their  minds  were  enriched,  besides,  with 
varied  and  extensive  acquired  knowledge  ;  and  that  it  is  this 
knowledge  and  those  talents  which  give  value  to  their  works, 
and  celebrity  to  their  names,  infinitely  more  than  elegance  of 
language,  or  the  graces  of  composition.  Nor  should  it  be 
forgotten  that  among  this  very  class  of  productions  there  are 
many,  in  the  paths  of  romance,  deservedly  of  high  repute, 
whose  authors  received  no  varnish  from  Cicero  or  Virgil. 
Among  the  unclassical,  indeed,  may  be  ranked  some  of  the 
most  captivating  novelists  and  dramatists  of  any  age  or  coun- 
try— such  as  Richardson,  Inchbald,  Radcliffe,  Burney,  Edge- 
worth,  (to  say  nothing  of  Shakspeare,)  and  many  others — 
whose  superiors  we  should  vainly  seek,  I  fear,  in  the  endless 
catalogues  of  collegiate  graduates.  The  case  is  the  same  in 
various  other  branches  of  science  and  learning. 

Nevertheless,  it  may  be  true  in  the  main,  that  a  good  Eng- 
lish style  is  usually  accompanied  with  some  portion  of  clas- 
sical learning  :  But  admitting  the  proposition  ;  yet  its  converse 
— that  those  who  are  skilled  in  ancient  tongues  can  always 
acquit  themselves  well  in  their  own — is  very  far  from  being 
true  ;  as  might  be  shown  by  a  long  list  of  exceptions.  This 
however  ought  to  be  true  according  to  theory.  Nor  does  it 
follow,  even  when  these  attainments  are  found  conjoined,  that 
one  is  the  cause  and  the  other  the  effect'.  Both  mav  be,  and 
7 


60 


CHAPTER    IV. 


it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  they  are,  concurrent  effects  refer- 
rable  to  a  common  cause.  They  result  jointly,  1  conceive, 
from  the  operation  of  favourable  circumstances  on  a  mind  by 
nature  acute  and  capacious.  Such  a  mind,  so  circumstanced, 
is  naturally  stimulated  by  curiosity,  (the  inseparable  adjunct 
of  genius,)  to  grasp  at  every  thing  within  its  reach.  "W  here- 
ever  its  possessor  be  located,  here  or  in  Europe,  classical 
studies  not  only  soon  fall  in  his  way,  but  are  almost  forced 
upon  him  by  the  fashion  of  the  times.  Of  the  dead  langua- 
ges, therefore,  he  makes  an  early  acquisition,  though  never  a 
rapid  one  :  Simultaneously  or  successively,  other  branches 
are  diligently  pursued  ;  his  native  tongue  is  critically  analy- 
sed ;  till  at  length  a  rich  and  diversified  stock  of  knowledge  is 
amassed  ;  and  in  this  way  he  becomes  a  proficient,  both  in 
science  and  learning.  It  is  not  that  ancient  languages  have  re- 
fined his  own  ;  but  the  whole  has  been  alike  matured  by  the 
same  eager  desire  to  attain,  and  the  same  sagacity  to  compre- 
hend. This,  in  all  probability,  is  the  true  cause,  most  certain- 
ly an  adequate  one,  of  the  coincidence  alluded  to  ;  and  when 
the  effect  may  be  accounted  for  in  a  manner  so  natural  and 
satisfactory,  why  should  we  strive  to  explain  it  by  a  mysteri- 
ous tutorship  of  Latin  over  English,  of  which  no  one  can 
form  a  distinct  conception  ? 

But  in  my  opinion  too  much  weight  has  been  attached  to 
the  circumstance  of  so  few  good  writers  (comparatively  speak- 
ing) having  been  known  to  the  world,  who  were  not  classical- 
ly educated.  For  in  the  first  place,  the  number  of  such  w  ho 
hare  written  well,  may  in  point  of  fact  be  greatly  underrated  ; 
and  secondly,  as  to  those  who  can  write  well,  this  is  obviously 
a  matter  of  conjecture  only.  Thousands,  no  doubt,  have  si- 
lently descended  to  the  tomb,  whose  intellectual  powers,  if 
called  into  action,  might  have  at  once  delighted  and  instructed 
mankind.  How  many  "  mute  inglorious  Miltons"  now  rest 
in  their  graves  we  shall  never  know.  Besides,  the  world  is 
seldom  anxious  to  learn  the  history  and  education  of  authors, 
unless  it  be  such  as  have  displayed  a  wide  scope  of  know- 
ledge, or  uncommon  penetration.  Hence  numbers,  possess- 
ing equal,  if  not  superior,  merit  in  respect  of  style  merely, 
may  have  passed  quite  unnoticed. 

Perhaps,  however,  some  judgment  may  be  formed  on  this 
head  in  another  way.  Let  any  one  survey  the  circle  of  his 
acquaintance,  and  he  probably  will  find  among  them  many  in- 
dividuals of  both  sexes,  in  whose  epistolary  and  other  manu- 
script performances,  subjects  have  been  treated  not  only  with 


CHAPTER   IV.  51 

ability,  but  in  a  suitable,  agreeable,  and  even  elegant  manner. 
He  might  call  to  mind  also   many  good  specimens  in  print,  on 
fugitive  topics,  by  persons  who  were  strangers  to  Latin  ;  and 
in  the  muses'  domain  particularly,   numerous  effusions,  not 
simply  neat,  but  polished  too,  from  the  pens  of  females.      He 
might  point  likewise  to  a  successful  bard  of  our  own,  who, 
though  not  one  of  the  alumni,  has  thrice   borne   off  the  prize 
before  a  whole   phalanx   of  regular   bred    expectants.      Or 
finally,  he  might  refer  to  the  pages  of  our  leading  critical  jour- 
nal, in  which  one  of  the  best   essays  for  the  last  two  years, 
perhaps  the  very  best,  in  style  as  well  as  talent,  was  the  tran- 
sient effort  of  an  unclassical  penman — of  a  mind,  however,  im- 
proved by  better  means  than  conjugating  Latin  verbs,  or  mea- 
suring Latin  verses.*     By  this  sort  of  survey,  any  one  might 
be  convinced  that,  among  those  who  have  not  had  what  is  call- 
ed a  liberal  education,  the  number  is  far  greater  than  is  gen- 
erally   imagined,    who   are  able,   when   they  choose,  to    ex- 
press just  and  pertinent  thoughts  in  forcible  and  elegant  dic- 
tion— and  what  is  this  if  it  be  not  good  writing? 

There  is  a  well  merited  compliment  of  Dr.  Gregory's  as 
regards  the  sex,  which  comes  directly  in  aid  of  our  argument; 
for  it  is  the  good  fortune  of  the  ladies,  generally  speaking,  to 
be  exempt   from  the  drudgery  of  classical  studies.     "  The 
style  of  female  authors  (says  he)  flows  easier,  and  is  common- 
ly more  harmonious  than  that  of  professed  scholars."     As  a 
general  remark,  it  is  just — We  have  a  notable  exception,  how- 
ever, in  Miss  Seward's  Memoirs  of  Darzvin — a  style  of  composi- 
tion so  stiff,  so  awkward,  and  so  highly  latinised,  as  to  exempli- 
fy fully  another  observation  of  the  same  critic,  that  "pedantry 
more  frequently  misleads  us  than  any  other  cause."     Wheth- 
er the  fair  authoress  was   familiar   with  the  tongues  of  other 
times,  we  are  not  informed.      But,   manifestly,  she  knew  the 
characteristic  of  a  Latin  sentence    to  be  inversion  ;    and  by 
endeavouring  to  mimic  this  in   her  native  speech,  has  made  a 
willing  sacrifice  of  ease,  of  grace,  and  what  is  worse,  of  per- 
spicuity. 

The  object  in  these  latter  remarks,  was  to  call  to  mind  the 
fact,  that  many  writers  have  arrived  at  eminence  without  any 
obligation  to  the  languages  ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  suggest, 
that  hundreds  of  others  may  have  been  amply  qualified,  yet 
have  not  chosen  to  appear  before  the  public.      These  points, 

*  See  North  Am.  Rev.  Oct.  1822.     Article  18,  written  by  a  merchant  of  this 
city. 


52  CHAPTER    IV. 

however,  need  not  be  much  insisted  upon.  The  case  imposes 
no  necessity  of  adducing  authors  of  this  description,  equal  ei- 
ther in  number  or  fame,  to  their  classic  rivals.  We  may  allow 
a  considerable  disparity  in  both  these  respects  ;  and  can  as- 
sign a  sufficient  cause,  apart  from  the  languages.  It  is  well 
known  to  be  our  custom  here,  as  in  Europe,  to  select  for  lit- 
erary promotion  those  children  to  whom  nature  has  been  most 
bountiful — the  motive  for  which,  whether  justifiable  or  not,  is 
as  natural  as  it  is  obvious.  Accordingly,  the  youth  placed 
under  classic  tuition  unquestionably  possess,  on  the  average, 
the  strongest  minds — in  addition  to  which  (it  is  important  to 
remark)  they  are  better  taught  in  all  other  branches,  as  well 
as  in  the  languages.  Furthermore,  while  their  companions 
are  called  off  to  new  employments  at  the  age  of  14  or  15, 
these  prosecute  their  studies  to  1  'i  or  20 — a  period  of  life  in- 
comparably more  propitious  to  the  accumulation  of  knowledge 
than  the  playful  years  of  bo\  hood.  All  things  thus  co-opera- 
ting in  their  favour,  these  youth  constitute,  in  every  sense  of 
the  phrase,  a  corps  cPclite.  Is  it  then  extraordinary  they 
should  make  better  writers  ?  Can  we  expect  the  same  ex- 
ploits from  common  soldiers  as  from  picked  troops  ;  or  look 
for  an  equal  product  from  field  husbandry  as  from  garden  til- 
lage ? — 1  may  add  too,  for  no  one  will  doubt  the  fact,  that 
the  very  notions  so  long  prevalent  on  this  subject,  have  ope- 
rated to  discourage  most  others  from  making  any  attempts  at 
authorship,  at  any  time  of  life. 

Taking  all  these  things  into  view,  we  surely  need  not  be  at 
a  loss  to  account  for  the  high  standing  of  classical  men  in  the 
republic  of  letters.  Nay  more,  where  such  manifold  advan- 
tages have  concurred,  we  might  reasonably  expect  a  greater 
effect  than  is  actually  found  ;  and  that  no  greater  is  witnessed 
can  perhaps  be  explained  in  no  other  way  than  by  supposing 
that  the  confused  ideas  obtained  through  Greek  and  Latin 
perplex  the  mind,  and  thus  obstruct  that  expansion  of  genius 
which  would  naturally  keep  pace  with  the  accumulation  of 
general  knowledge.  In  my  belief  this  is  really  the  tendency 
of  classical  studies  ;  and  however  numerous  may  be  the  ex- 
amples of  men  thus  educated,  who  have  made  themselves 
conspicuous  as  authors,  they  have  succeeded,  probably,  not  in 
consequence  of  such  learning,  but  in  spite  of  it. 

Another  favourite  expedient  to  evince  the  efficacy  of  an- 
cient learning  in  ameliorating  the  taste  and  the  judgment,  is 
to  refer  us  to  some  celebrated  English  writer  as  a  case  in 
point.     Among  them  all,  Addison,  is  more  frequently  selected 


CHAPTER    IV.  53 

for  this  purpose,  than  any  other ;  and  he,  poor  man,  has  been 
roundly  accused  of  plucking  all  the  fairest  flowers  in  the  clas- 
sic garden.  But  whatever  were  his  robberies  in  this  way,  the 
blossoms  of  style  were  certainly  not  among  them.  His  graces 
of  manner  are  all  of  home  growth*  Being,  how  ever,  consum- 
mately skilled  in  Latin,  the  policy  has  been  to  refer  all  his 
excellence  to  that  cause,  and  thus  exemplify  the  magical  ef- 
fect of  Roman  models.  An  inference  more  thoroughly  gra- 
tuitous, I  venture  to  say,  was  never  made. 

Addison  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands  to  be  an  easy,  elegant, 
and  most  entertaining  writer  ;  fully  deserving,  perhaps,  the 
high  eulogium  which  Johnson,  with  peculiar  felicity  of  ex- 
pression, has  penned  for  him.  His  latinity  also,  was  no  less 
correct  and  elegant  than  his  English  ;  but  the  chief  merit  of 
both  consists  as  much  in  the  idiom  of  each  being  kept  perfect- 
ly distinct,  as  in  any  other  circumstance.  The  change  of 
style  brought  about,  or  rather  accelerated,  by  the  taste  and 
influence  of  the  Addisonian  school,  so  far  from  being  an  ap- 
proximation to  the  Latin  manner,  was  effected  by  discarding 
numberless  uncouth  turns  of  expression,  and  that  stiff  un- 
graceful structure  of  sentence,  which  earlier  writers  had  fallen 
into  by  aping  the  ancient  classics.  It  was  by  carefully  avoid- 
ing all  this  ;  by  restoring  the  characteristic  simplicity  of  the 
English  idiom  ;  by  giving  scope  to  a  fertile,  yet  chaste  imagin- 
ation ;  and  by  opening  the  resources  of  a  highly  cultivated 
mind  ;  that  the  author  of  the  Spectator  diffused  a  charm 
through  all  his  writings,  which,  while  it  never  fails  to  fascinate 
the  reader,  bears  no  resemblance  to  any  thing  we  inherit  from 
antiquity.  It  is  risking  nothing  to  say,  that  no  productions  in 
our  language  are  more  strictly  English,  or,  if  the  expression 
be  allowed,  more  completely  unlatinised,  than  those  engaging 
essays — not  a  sentence  can  be  found  after  the  Latin  manner. 
If  therefore,  the  dead  languages  were  any  benefit  to  Addison, 
in  respect  of  style,  it  was  by  teaching  him  what  to  avoid,  not 
what  to  imitate. 

But  what  was  the  style,  let  mc  ask,  of  those  among  Addi- 
son's predecessors,  who  did  imitate  the  ancients  ?  Professor 
Barron  accurately  describes  it  as  follows — w  They  disfigured 
our  language  in  every  respect — they  latinised  our  words  and 
our  terminations;  and  they  introduced  inversions  so  violent  as 
to  render  the  sense  often  obscure,  and  in  some  cases  unintelli- 
gible."*    This  indeed  was  the  fashionable  manner  among  the 

*  Barron's  Lectures,  vol.  1.  page  47. 


rilAPTEU    IV. 

great  body  of  English  writers  at  one  period  ;  and  we  have 
here  a  farther  confirmation  of  a  former  remark,  that  although 
the  Latin  form  of  sentence  may  easily  be  copied,  it  must  al- 
ways be  at  the  expense  of  almost  every  pleasing  quality. 

Indeed  there  is  little  room  to  doubt  that  this  whole  doctrine 
of  imitation,  so  unsuccessfully  put  in  practice  by  the  writers 
last  mentioned — so  servile  too  in  its  very  nature — yet  so  per- 
tinaciously urged  upon  us  at  every  turn — is  built  entirely  on 
a  false  foundation.  It  rests  on  the  unauthorized  assumption 
that  the  principles  of  taste,  in  matters  of  style,  are  universal, 
and  common  to  all  languages;  which  is  exactly  the  same  mis- 
take as  before  noticed  in  grammar.  But  scholars  of  a  higher 
cast  .'that  is,  of  stronger  analytic  powers,)  have  long  been 
aware  of  the  fallacy  ;  and  in  many  instances  have  taken  some 
pains  to  unmask  it.  "  If  we  consider  the  works  of  literature 
(says  the  German  critic  Schlegel.)  by  any  universal  theory  of 
art,  there  is  no  end  to  the  controversy  that  may  arise  as  to  the 
merits  of  any  individual  book,  or  of  any  body  of  literature." 
The  critical  acumen  of  this  philosophical  writer  is  employed 
at  some  length  in  exposing  the  pernicious  tendency  of  the 
very  error  in  question  ;  and  he  points  out  various  ways  in 
which  the  study  of  classic  models  had  a  most  unhappy  influ- 
ence on  early  European  writers,  English  as  well  as  others — 
but  above  all,  on  the  Italians.*  Another  critic  of  no  less  ce- 
lebrity, Sismonde,  is  so  entirely  of  the  same  mind  that  he  as- 
cribes the  degeneracy  of  Italian  literature  in  the  15th  centu- 
ry, to  nothing  else  but  the  passionate  study  of  the  ancients, 
which,  to  use  his  own  words,  "caused  the  neglect  of  their 
own  language,  and  took  away  all  originality  from  their  au- 
thors." Italian,  he  says,  was  not  cultivated  for  fear  of  spoil- 
ing their  Latin;  and  thus,  through  neglect  on  one  side,  and 
classic  imitation  on  the  other,  gross  corruption  awaited  it.t  In 
England  also,  when  the  classic  mania  was  at  its  height,  the 
effect  was  precisely  similar,  as  we  have  already  seen  by  the 
quotation  from  Barron. 

It  would  seem  then,  the  very  history  of  literature  might 
itself  admonish  us,  that  the  plan  of  imitation  is  as  ruinous  to 
taste,  as  it  is  to  originality.  But  independently  of  all  reference 
to  facts,  it  needs  but  little  reflection  to  convince  any  man  that 
the  standard  of  taste,  like  that  of  grammar  and  meaning,  is  in 
every  language  inherent,  peculiar,  and  untransferable.      It  is 

*  Schlegel's  Lectures,  vol  2.  pages  23, 90,  and  96. 
t  Sismonde,  vol.  2.  page  23  and  24. 


CHAPTKIi    IV.  56 

quite  time  then  to  abandon  the  puerile  idea  of  polishing  Eng- 
lish with  Latin  tools.  We  might  as  well  believe  a  carpenter 
could  polish  his  work  with  the  tools  of  a  mason.  There  is  no 
fitness  in  the  instrument. 

It  is  not  intended  however,  by  any  thing  here  said,  to  deny 
that  there  are  certain  elements  of  beauty  in  literary  composi- 
tion, which  being  independent  of  language  or  expression, 
might  properly  enough  be  called  universal,  and  therefore,  if 
you  will,  transferable — such  as  beauty  of  morals,  of  senti- 
ment, of  passion  and  the  like.  But  unfortunately,  the  ancient 
classics  are  in  general  so  extremely  licentious,  not  to  say  dis- 
gusting, as  to  be  wholly  unfit  either  for  the  school  or  the  par- 
lour, without  a  severe  expurgation — and  even  then,  how  little 
consistent  with  modern  ideas  of  propriety.  "  I  know  not 
(says  Spence)  what  to  say  of  one  thing,  that  Homer  makes 
dissimulation  one  of  the  excellences  of  his  heroes."  And  see 
how  he  accounts  for  it,  "  but  the  heathen  system  of  morality 
(he  adds)  was  incomplete  enough  to  bear  with  this  proceed- 
ing." 

But  another  thing,  is  it  not  quite  frivolous  at  least,  if  not  in- 
congruous, to  talk  so  much  about  the  ancients  in  bulk,  as  mod- 
els of  style,  when  their  respective  manners  are  so  extremely 
various?  Scarcely  a  point  of  uniformity  exists  among  them, 
excepting  only  the  national  idiom,  which  it  is  impossible  to 
transfuse  into  modern  tongues,  without  rendering  them  alto- 
gether uncouth  and  heterogeneous.  And  further,  is  there  not 
something  very  singular,  and  contradictory  withal,  in  pre- 
tending that  excellence  is  unattainable  but  by  imitation  ;  and 
telling  us  in  the  same  breath  that  the  Grecians  were  no  imita- 
tors, yet  excelled  in  every  thing?  One  would  think  the  very 
inconsistency  of  such  a  theory  was  enough  to  discredit  it.* 

Let  us,  however,  for  one  moment  fall  in  with  this  theory 
and  see  where  it  would  lead  us.  What  if  there  are  universal 
principles  in  literary  composition.  What  if  Addison  and  oth- 
ers have  discovered  those  principles,  and  transferred  them  to 
their  own  pages — what  follows  ? — Most  certainly  this — that 
these  same  English  masters  exhibit  to  us  the  very  principles 
so  much  extolled  ;  and  what  is  more,  they  teach  us  like- 
wise, what  never  could  be  learnt  from  the  ancients,  thcmanncr 
of  applying  them.  Now  which  is  best,  to  learn  an  abstract 
principle  and   nothing  more  ;    or  to  learn,  together  therewith, 


*  See  note  C.  in  the  Appendix. 


56  CHAPTER   IV. 

its  proper  application  ?  This  aspect  of  the  case,  seems  quite  as 
conclusive  against  resorting  to  Greek  and  Latin  as  any  other. 
Or  let  us  take  the  thing,  by  way  of  variety,  just  as  scholars 
will  have  it.  Suppose  it  conceded,  that  the  study  of  Latin  is 
really  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  the  object,  and  even 
the  only  means.  No  one  can  imagine  that  a  slight  acquaint- 
ance with  that  language  would  answer  the  purpose — our 
knowledge  of  it,  and  of  its  writers,  must  be  at  once  critical 
and  familiar.  With  this  in  mind,  we  must  consider  on  the 
other  hand,  that  great  precision,  or  great  elegance  of  style, 
cannot  be  important  to  any  but  professed  authors ;  and  even  to 
them  worth  nothing  in  comparison  with  good  sense,  sound 
judgment,  and  above  all,  a  competent  knowledge  of  their  sub- 
ject. These  latter  qualifications,  indeed,  would  of  themselves 
naturally  form  a  manner,  which,  though  unembellished  per- 
haps, could  never  be  had  ;  and  if  it  fell  short  in  elegance, 
would  abundantly  compensate  in  perspicuity.  Nor  must  it 
be  forgotten,  that,  in  devoting  so  much  time  to  the  classics, 
other  studies  of  high  value  must  be  partially  or  wholly  neg- 
lected. If  then,  combining  all  these  circumstances,  we  con- 
trast the  improvement  thus  derived,  with  the  sacrifices  made  to 
attain  it — if  we  compare  the  value  of  the  polish  with  the  cost 
of  the  polishing  instrument — we  could  hence  draw  but  a  very 
feeble  argument  indeed  in  favour  of  such  a  course,  even  for 
literary  men — while  as  a  general  system,  there  could  be  no 
favourable  inference  whatever. 

But  lastly,  if  we  consult  that  class  of  writers  who  have  in- 
vestigated the  elements  of  composition,  and  profess  to  give 
instructions  on  that  score,  we  shall  find  them  all  concurring  in 
the  doctrine  of  an  inherent  standard,  and  in  referring  to  approv- 
ed models  in  our  own  language.  Among  the  many  who  have 
written  with  this  view,  we  may  cite  Mr.  Kett  of  Oxford — a 
staunch  friend  to  classical  studies,  and  a  tutor  at  college — 
yet  as  independent  in  his  opinion,  as  perhaps  any  man  would 
venture  to  be,  so  situated.  With  regard  to  style,  he  observes, 
"It  should  consist  in  a  compliance  with  general  rules,  and  the 
practice  of  polished  ranks  in  society.  Without  attention  to 
some  rules,  without  a  proper  discrimination  between  good  and 
bad,  the  language  will  degenerate,  and  the  English  tongue 
will  finally  lose  its  value,  its  weight,  and  its  lustre,  by  being 
mixed  with  foreign  words,  and  the  alloy  of  learned  affectation.'1'' 
He  says  in  another  page,  u  In  order  to  avoid  the  errors  of 
those  who  have  been  led  astray  by  affectation  and  faise  re- 
finement, (among  whom  he  ranks  Gibbon,  for  his  numerous 


CHAPTER   IV.  57 

latinisms)  and  to  form  a  proper  opinion  of  the  genuine  Eng- 
lish idiom,  it  is  necessary  to  peruse  the  works  of  the  best  and 
most  approved  writers."     And  he  adds  elsewhere,  after  nam- 
ing several  English  authors,  "  such  are  the  examples  by  which 
our  style  ought  to  be  regulated."*     From  these  quotations  it 
is  evident  enough  that  Mr.  Kett,  however  abounding  in  classic 
partialities,  is  yet  sensible  that  the  true  criterion  for  us  can 
nowhere  be  found  but  in  our  own  mother  tongue — a  conclu- 
sion, in  which  every  inquiry,  pursued  on  philosophical  princi- 
ples, must  unavoidably  terminate  ;  and  one  that  rejects,  as  en- 
tirely   fictitious,  the   pretended  agency  of  Greek  and  Latin. 
It  is  with  great  propriety,  therefore,  that  Mr.  Pickering,  in  his 
Vocabulary,   alluding  to  certain    English   authors,  subjoins 
"  such  standard  authors  should  be  made  the  foundation  of  our 
English."     Mr.  Pickering  indeed,  goes  all  lengths  with  us  in 
this  matter,  and  quotes  a  distinguished  transatlantic  Review, 
by  way  of  corroboration.!      At  least,  thus  I  interpret  him — 
if  erroneously,  no  one  is  better  able  than  himself  to  state  his 
real  sentiments,  and  the  grounds  on  which  they  rest ;  and  no 
one  can  do  it  in  a  more  agreeable  manner. 

The  reader  has  now  before  him  all  that  was  proposed  to  be 
said  on  this  topic  ;  and  I  cannot  but  think  he  will  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  common  scholastic  doctrine  is  not  to  be 
maintained  on  any  principle  of  sound  reasoning. 

And  where,  after  all,  is  the  propriety  of  such  unwearied 
attention  to  the  petty  artifices  of  style,  by  whatever  means 
acquired,  as  the  supporters  of  that  doctrine  insist  upon.  Do 
they  mean  to  say  that  mere  taste,  and  a  conformity  to  certain 
arbitrary  rules,  are  the  sole,  or  even  the  chief  ingredients  in 
good  writing  1  Has  sense,  and  intelligence,  and  reflection, 
nothing  to  do  with  it ;  or  is  this  the  portion  of  those  only  who 
worship  at  the  shrine  of  Cicero  and  Aristotle  ? 

There  certainly  does  appear  to  be  some  cause  for  appre- 
hending that  the  characteristic  of  literary  performances  in  our 
day,  will  seem,  to  future  critics,  to  be  that  of  pretty  writing — 
the  besetting  sin  is  manner — and  this  perversity  of  judgment 
results  naturally  from  the  prevalence  of  classical  notions.  To 
abate  the  evil,  our  votaries  of  the  plume  would  do  well  to 
listen  to  the  advice  of  Duncan — "  Whether  composition  (says 


*  Kelt's  Elements,  vol.  1.  pages  104  to  108. 

t  Preface  and  Essay  in  Pickering's  Vocabulary. 


58  CHAPTER  V. 

he)  be  grave  or  light,  humourous  or  satirical,  let  it  be  re- 
membered that  beauty  consists  more  in  idea  than  expression; 
and  that  it  is  not  inflated  language,  but  propriety  of  thought, 
which  constitutes  a  good  writer."*  They  would  find  an  ad- 
vantage also  in  recurring  now  and  then  to  the  admonition  of 
our  great  English  critic,  that  "  compositions,  merely  pretty, 
must  have  the  fate  of  other  pretty  things,  and  be  soon  quitted 
for  something  better  -,"t — that  is  to  say,  for  something  where 
sense  and  knowledge  predominate,  and  where  style  could  do 
but  little  good  on  the  one  hand,  or  little  harm  on  the  other. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Classic  literature,  of  little  value  as  a  source  of  knowledge* 

It  is  a  dominant  article  in  the  classic  creed,  that  the  lan- 
guages open  to  us  an  inexhaustible  store  of  knowledge.  Dr. 
Rush  remarks  on  this  point,  very  happily,  that  we  seem  to 
forget  the  age  we  live  in — he  might  have  added,  and  the  age 
also  to  which  we  are  referred  for  instruction  ;  for  before  any 
weight  can  be  allowed  to  this  argument,  we  must  draw  a  veil 
over  the  whole  history  of  knowledge.  But  it  would  be  whim- 
sical enough  to  imagime  ourselves  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  ig- 
norance merely  that  we  may  ascribe  to  Aristotle  the  honour 
of  dispersing  it.  What  indeed  can  be  more  visionary  than  to 
attempt  to  enlighten  the  present  age  by  the  glimmering  rays 
of  ancient  science — it  is  like  carrying  a  taper  to  Vauxhall. 

But  let  us  cast  our  eye  back  to  the  time  when  classic  light 
was  restored.  There  was  a  period  in  the  history  of  Europe, 
as  we  all  know,  and  a  very  long  one,  when  book  learning,  and 
still  more  book  making,  were  entirely  out  of  fashion.  Of 
modern  works  there  were  none  ;  while  those  of  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome  lay  concealed  in  convents  and  cloisters,  un- 
read and  unsought.  The  minds  of  men,  long  weaned  from 
such  pursuits  by  the  operation  of  powerful  general  causes, 


*  Duncan's  Essay  on  Genius,  page  180. 
t  Johnson's  Life  of  Waller. 


CHAPTEH   V.  59 

political,  ecclesiastical,  and  moral,  were  at  length  allured 
again  to  literature  by  causes  no  less  remarkable  ;  among 
which,  the  invention  of  printing,  and  the  reformation  in  mat- 
ters of  religion,  effected  by  Luther,  were  the  most  conspicu- 
ous. To  these  events,  must  chiefly  be  imputed  what  is  term- 
ed the  revival  of  letters  ;  or  in  other  words,  the  renewed  taste 
for  books  and  literature  :— Cotemporary  therewith,  or  nearly 
so,  (but  whether  as  cause,  or  effect,  or  reciprocally  both,  is 
uncertain,)  was  the  discovery  of  ancient  manuscripts  in  their 
various  secret  repositories  throughout  Europe.  By  aid  of 
this  discovery,  the  growing  taste  for  study  was  no  doubt  pro- 
digiously stimulated,  and  possibly  in  some  measure  rewarded 
— though  it  is  far  from  being  certain,  that  useful  knowledge, 
or  even  speculative  science,  was  in  the  smallest  degree  ad- 
vanced. 

What  may  reasonably  excite  a  doubt  on  this  point,  or  rath- 
er perhaps  completely  disprove  it,  is  the  well  attested  fact  of 
many  very  striking,  and  indeed  wonderful  discoveries  and  in- 
ventions, having  occurred  antecedently  to  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing ;  or  at  any  rate,  ere  that  learning  can  be  supposed  to 
have  had  any  influence — far  less  such  influence.  The  inven- 
tions of  paper,  printing,  clocks,  watches,  spectacles,  teles- 
copes, of  the  compass,  of  gunpowder,  of  arithmetical  figures, 
and  many  other  things,  are  unequivocal  indications  that  the  hu- 
man mind,  however  averse  to  literary  parade,  was  far,  very 
far,  from  being  inactive  during  what  is  called  the  middle  ages. 
Indeed,  what  force  of  genius  ;  what  depth  of  reflection  ;  what 
extent  of  knowledge  too,  is  implied  in  all  this  !  Can  the  long 
annals  of  Greece  and  Rome  show  any  thing  on  a  par  with 
these,  I  might  almost  say  any  one  of  these  improvements  ?  If 
they  can,  1  confess  my  ignorance,  and  desire  to  be  enlighten- 
ed. As  to  the  wild  day-dreams  of  their  visionary  philoso- 
phers, or  the  rhapsodies  of  their  poets,  orators,  and  histori- 
ans, it  is  all  quite  insignificant,  compared  with  the  efficacy  of 
these  discoveries,  in  promoting  the  every-day  comforts  of  life, 
and  in  ameliorating  the  general  condition  of  mankind.  Now 
in  all  this,  and  much  else  that  was  accomplished  about  that 
time,  ancient  writings  had  positively  no  agency  whatever. 
The  truth  is,  the  minds  of  men  were  already  roused  by  other 
causes  ;  ingenuity  was  busy  at  work  ;  and  for  all  we  know, 
the  progress  of  science  in  the  two  following  centuries,  rapid 
as  it  really  was,  might  have  been  incalculably  more  so,  had 
not  genius  and  industry  been  called  off  to  the  musty  manu- 
scripts of  earlier  times. 


60  CHAPTER   V. 

Mr.  Harris  in  his  Philological  Inquiries,  alluding  to  the  fore- 
mentioned  admirable  inventions,  as  he  properly  terms  them , 
calls  it  all  surprising  ;  and  so  indeed,  it  would  be  on  his  the- 
ory of  a  prevailing  ignorance  at  that  period,  and  even  impos- 
sible. 

it  is  even  a  questionable  thing  if  the  substantial  parts  of 
knowledge  were  lost  during  any  portion  of  what  are  usually 
stigmatized  the  dark  ages-  Schlegel  declares  his  conviction 
they  were  not  ;  and  as  to  the  era  in  question  he  remarks, 
"  Among  the  suddenly  enriched,  and  intellectually  fruitful 
periods  of  modern  Europe,  the  most  brilliant,  perhaps,  was 
that  of  the  loth  century."  Why  then  call  that  a  dark  age  ? 
Dark  it  may  have  been,  if  we  consider  only  the  literary  art 
— the  art  of  displaying  knowledge — but  luminous  almost  be- 
yond description,  certainly  far  beyond  any  thing  the  world 
had  before  seen,  in  the  brightest  efforts  of  intellect — the  dis- 
coveries in  art  and  science.  Undeniably,  Europe  was  at 
that  very  time  superior  in  many  important  respects  to  the 
best  days  of  Rome  or  Greece.  Who  can  believe  that  classic 
nations  would  have  made  any  figure  by  the  side  of  a  people 
in  possession  of  the  arts  above  enumerated  ;  and  possessing 
moreover,  the  genius  that  created  them.  Nevertheless,  a  no- 
tion has  prevailed,  that  mankind  were  in  a  state  of  hopeless 
ignorance  at  the  revival  of  ancient  learning ;  and  I  am  not 
aware  that  scholars  have  taken  the  least  pains  to  expose  this 
"  hoary-headed  error." 

An  error  it  most  certainly  was,  and  its  origin  may  at  least 
be  guessed  at.  There  is  in  mankind  a  propensity  to  endeav- 
our to  account  for  every  thing,  and  it  is  a  fortunate  one  ;  but 
there  is  likewise  a  propensity  to  simplify  causes,  which  often  is 
very  unfortunate.  These  tendencies  combined  have  led  men, 
in  countless  instances,  to  assign  to  some  particular  ostensible 
cause,  an  efficacy  a  thousand  fold  greater  than  was  just,  or 
even  rational.  To  take  an  example,  that  political  phenome- 
non, the  French  revolution,  was  for  many  years,  as  we  may 
all  remember,  considered  the  work  of  half  a  score  of  able, 
factious,  and  desperate  demagogues.  But  of  late  the  error  of 
such  an  opinion  is  clearly  perceived  ;  and  wise  men  of  every 
nation,  and  of  all  parties,  now  more  justly  ascribe  the  whole 
to  extensive  moral  causes,  for  a  long  time  silently,  yet  active- 
ly operating  throughout  that  ill-fated  country.  Precisely  in 
the  same  way,  the  natural  propensities  alluded  to,  have  indu- 
ced a  general  belief  among  moderns,  that  the  astonishing  ad- 
vances in  knowledge  and  civilization,  which  characterized  the 


CHAPTER   V.  61 

15th  and  16th  centuries,  all  flowed  from  the  introduction  of 
classical  learning  into  Europe.  The  whole  state  of  things 
then  existing  was  thought  to  be  explained  by  the  magicnl 
phrase  revival  of  learning.  And  the  charm  in  some  measure, 
still  operates—  those  potent  little  words  are  still  made  to  re- 
solve every  thing — accounting  not  only  for  all  that  could  pos- 
sibly be  learnt  from  ancient  writings,  but  also  for  many  mag- 
nificent discoveries,  of  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were 
as  completely  ignorant  as  the  Choctaws  or  Cherokees.  but 
surely  that  must  be  a  wretched  philosophy,  which  refers  ef- 
fects so  vast  and  so  various,  to  the  trivial  circumstance  of  a 
few  Greek  volumes  being  discovered,  and  a  few  Greek  teach- 
ers having  fled  into  Italy  from  the  East.  It  is  in  every  re- 
spect more  rational  to  impute  all  this  to  a  happy  concurrence 
of  moral  causes,  which,  in  the  desire  to  make  every  thing  re- 
dound to  the  honour  of  Greece  and  Rome,  have  been  much 
too  generally  overlooked.  But  men,  it  seems,  have  willingly 
gone  blindfolded  to  the  classic  altar,  that  they  might  worship 
with  better  grace. 

However,  at  the  epoch  referred  to,  the  passion  for  reading 
came  again  into  vogue;  and  as  fashion  has  great  sway  in  every 
thing,  even  in  the  exercise  of  the  mind,  and  books  being  then 
scarce  to  a  degree  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  idea  in 
the  present  age,  studious  men  at  once  became  absorbed  in 
the  new  found  treasures ;  and  soon  after  became  enthusiasts. 
All  knowledge  and  refinement  were  thought  to  lie  under  cover 
of  the  dead  languages,  and  all  learning  (as  the  term  is  gene- 
rally used)  did  lie  there.  The  deductions  of  science,  the 
maxims  of  wisdom,  and  the  charms  of  wit,  were  considered 
as  locked  up  in  Greek  and  Latin  ;  and  to  possess  the  key  of 
so  rich  a  casket  might  well  be  deemed  a  compensation  for 
some  years  of  toil.  Hence  ancient  tongues  were  universally 
studied  as  valuable  means  to  a  valuable  end.  The  whole 
thing  was  natural  enough,  and  possibly  some  good  may  have 
resulted  from  it ;  much  evil  most  certainly  has. 

But  if  Europe,  at  the  period  in  question,  stood  so  little  in 
need  of  classic  aid  as  we  have  described,  how  must  it  stand 
now  ?  Not  only  has  the  march  of  mind  gone  on  with  accele- 
rated step,  but  the  storehouse  of  antiquity  has  been  made  to 
yield  up  all  its  treasures, (if  so  they  may  be  called)  and  there- 
with much  also  of  its  worthless  ware.  At  least  as  far  back 
as  a  centurj'  from  our  times,  perhaps  much  farther,  every 
thing  valuable  in  ancient  literature  had  already  either  been 
translated,  or  culled  out  and  incorporated  in  English  works  ; 


62  CHAPTER   V. 

and  the  same  labour  has  been  continued  on  minor  topics  down 
to  the  present  day — so  that  now  it  is  quite  idle  to  pretend  that 
any  thing  of  consequence  yet  remains  concealed  from  Eng- 
lish readers.  Whatever  heathen  writers  can  teach,  in  any  re- 
spect useful,  we  no  longer  need  their  language  to  avail  of. 
The  ore  of  ancient  knowledge,  in  its  original  form,  is  now 
therefore  of  little  worth.  The  pure  metal  has  been  separated 
and  refined,  and  as  far  as  it  was  capable,  made  subservient  to 
useful  purposes.  Why  then  should  we  spend  years  and  years 
in  delving  at  the  crude  mass  in  ancient  fields  when  all  its  bet- 
ter elements  are  found  in  our  own  territories,  without  alloy, 
and  with  little  trouble. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  the  unwearied  industry  of  schol- 
ars, in  bringing  to  light  every  thing  really  estimable  in  the 
productions  of  classic  times,  their  gleanings  have  furnished 
but  a  small  part,  an  exceedingly  small  part,  of  the  mass  of 
wisdom  embodied,  and  digested  in  modern  literature.  This 
I  had  thought  of  showing,  by  drawing  a  brief  comparison  be- 
tween the  ancients  and  moderns  in  the  more  important 
branches  of  science  and  learning — but  the  most  compendious 
sketch  that  could  be  devised,  to  be  at  all  satisfactory,  would 
spread  too  wide  for  the  present  occasion.  It  may  suffice  to 
say,  that  no  view  of  this  kind  could  fail  to  exhibit  the  com- 
plete ascendency  of  the  modern  world.  This  indeed  is  not 
denied.  It  is  not  pretended  that  either  Greece  or  Rome  could 
at  all  approach,  in  the  sum  total  of  useful  productive  know- 
ledge, or  even  of  speculative.  Dr.  Knox  himself,  whatever 
language  he  may  hold  as  tutor,  admits  all  this  as  an  essayist. 
"  A  man  (says  he)  may  have  read  the  best  Greek  and  Latin 
authors,  and  scarcely  have  one  just  and  truly  philosophical 
idead  of  the  orb  on  which  he  lives,  or  its  natural  and  artifi- 
cial productions."  And  again,  "  In  useful  science,  and  in  nat- 
ural philosophy,  the  ancients  fall  so  far  short  as  not  to  bear  a 
comparison."*  In  fact,  so  immense  is  the  difference,  that  it 
would  be  quite  on  the  safe  side  to  affirm,  that  every  boy  in  his 
teens  may  now  be  in  possession  of  a  greater  amount  of  profit- 
able knowledge,  than  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece — and  as  to  the  unprofitable,  it  can  well  be  spared. 
The  only  wonder  is,  that  fully  sensible  of  the  astonishing 
change,  as  we  all  are,  a  system  of  education  should  still  be 
tolerated,  which  imposes  a  dreary  pilgrimage  through  the 

*  Knos/s  Essays,  No.  22  and  69. 


CHAPTER    V.  63 

wilderness  of  antiquity,  to  seek  what  no  one  believes  can  be 
found. 

Very  frequently,  however,  and  very  naturally  under  these 
circumstances,  classical  men  expatiate  on  the  importance  of 
certain  accomplishments,  in  which,  they  say,  the  ancients  ex- 
celled. So  far  am  1  from  stopping  to  contest  this  point, 
though  extremely  doubtful,  I  should  freely  allow  not  only  all 
they  assert,  but  as  much  more  as  they  may  choose  to  claim  of 
that  nature.  Useful  attainments  are  so  immeasurably  superior 
to  what  is  simply  amusing  or  ornamental,  that  the  latter  is  not 
even  worth  computing.  To  take  the  words  of  one,  who,  be- 
sides scholarship,  has  many  better  things  to  boast  of,  "  For  it 
is  not  the  parade  of  learning,  like  the  display  of  an  elegant 
philosophical  apparatus,  that  we  are  called  to  admire,  but  the 
useful  application  of  that  learning."  And  Cicero  himself  (a 
good  authority  with  some  people)  was  aware  of  this — "  Know- 
ledge (says  he)  that  is  applicable  to  no  useful  purpose  cannot 
deserve  the  name  of  wisdom."  And  he  is  right  enough,  for  of 
such  knowledge,  one  might  say  what  has  been  said  of  skepti- 
cism, that  it  is  the  science  of  knowing  nothing.  In  short,  learn- 
ing that  cannot  be  applied,  is  like  money  that  will  not  pass — 
with  millions  in  his  coffer,  a  man  would  still  be  a  pauper. 

And  yet  there  are  men,  who,  from  long  indulgence  in  habits 
of  antiquarian  research,  are  led  to  believe  that  classical  pur- 
suits, unlike  all  others,  should  not  be  measured  by  the  scale 
of  utility.  An  ingenious  writer  on  the  pronunciation  of  Greek, 
assures  us,  that  scholars  will  not  stop  to  inquire  if  such  disqui- 
sitions be  useful ;  and  for  this  he  is  complimented,  or  intended 
to  be,  in  the  North  Am.  Rev.  as  displaying  "  the  genuine  spi- 
rit of  scholarship"  Without  pretending  to  judge  in  the  case, 
I  have  only  to  say  that  it  may  be  scholarship,  and  it  may  be 
genuine  ;  but  I  must  be  excused  in  adding  it  is  not  philosophy. 
Another  set  of  scholars,  however,  it  is  but  fair  to  state,  hold 
utility  to  be  not  so  bad  a  thing — "  The  uses  of  a  thing  (says 
the  Literary  Gazette,  No.  4.)  begin  to  be  the  measure  of  its 
value  ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  in  praise  of  the  intellectual  condi- 
tion of  the  world,  that  it  has  done  something  towards  estab- 
lishing the  great  truth  which  lies  at  the  bottom  of  all  wisdom — 
that  no  knowledge  is  valuable,  no  acquisition  worth  making, 
and  no  action  of  body  or  mind  good,  but  as  they  subserve  the 
actual  interests  of  humanity,  &c."  Now  all  this,  though  rath- 
er verbose,  is  sound  philosophy — philosophy  too,  of  a  descrip- 
tion, that,  if  once  brought  into  full  play,  would  soon  conduct 
to  the  tomb  a  long  retinue  of  academic  whims  and  prejudices. 


64  CUAPTEK    V. 

In  matters  of  study,  more  even  than  any  others,  the  well 
known  motto,  cui  bono,  should  never  be  out  of  sight.  Utility 
once  discarded,  what  test  shall  wc  have;  what  ot.cr  could  we 
have  ?    But  to  resume. 

So  vast  have  been  the  accessions  of  knowledge  in  latter 
ages,  yet  so  regular  the  progress,  that  even  the-  period  when 
ancient  learning  ceased  to  be  useful,  seems  itself  almost  lost  in 
the  shades  of  antiquity.  Infinitely  more  than  Greece  or 
Rome  ever  knew,  has  long  been  embraced  in  every  language 
of  modern  Europe  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  is  there  expounded 
in  a  manner  far  more  satisfactory. 

All  this  is  unquestionably  true,  and  cannot  be  gainsayed. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  we  must  not  withhold  from  anti- 
quity its  just  meed  of  applause.  Every  age  and  every  peo- 
ple have  done  something  for  posterity.  The  Egyptians,  Gre- 
cians, Romans,  and  far  more  than  either,  the  Arabians,  have 
transmitted  certain  arts  and  sciences  in  a  state  of  considera- 
ble advancement ;  of  which  our  ancestors  of  modern  Europe 
(those  same  Gothic  people  so  much  reviled  by  scholars)  very 
wisely  availed  themselves.  This  mass  of  knowledge  they 
perfected,  and  handed  down  to  us  ;  together  with  many  new 
branches,  originated  and  matured  by  themselves,  as  also  a 
brilliant  train  of  inventions  of  peculiar  excellence.  But  ob- 
serve, it  would  have  been  just  as  rational  in  them  to  overlook 
the  science  of  Arabia,  Rome,  or  Greece,  and  seek  intelligence 
among  the  relics  of  earlier  nations,  as  it  would  now  be  in  us 
to  neglect  the  full  treasury  of  modern  tongues,  and  betake 
ourselves  to  Greek  and  Latin.  The  cases  are  exactly  paral- 
lel. Nor  should  it  ever  be  forgotten,  in  speaking  of  our  Go- 
thic ancestors,  that  we  owe  to  them,  and  to  them  exclusively, 
several  leading  principles  and  features  in  social  life,  of  inesti- 
mable value  to  our  present  happiness  ;  as  likewise  the  renun- 
ciation of  many  abominable  practices  and  traits  of  character, 
by  which  the  classic  age  was  brutalized.  Among  such  things 
it  may  suffice  to  mention  here — the  restoration  of  the  female 
sex  to  its  proper  standing  in  society — the  abolition,  nearly 
entire,  of  domestic  slavery,  tenfold  more  inhuman  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  than  in  the  West  Indies,  or  elsewhere, 
at  any  period — many  valuable  maxims  and  customs  in  the 
science  of  government — and  above  all,  that  bulwark  of  our 
personal  rights  and  liberties,  the  trial  by  jury.  From  these 
ameliorations,  aided  by  the  benign  influence  of  Christianity, 
has  resulted  a  state  of  society  and  of  manners,  compared  to 
which,  the  classic  age  was  truly  barbarous.     And  yet,  merely 


CHAPTER   V.  G5 

because  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  a  literary  people,  with 
something  of  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  the  fashion  among  book- 
ish men  has  always  been,  in  repugnance  to  every  principle  of 
justice,  to  lavish  their  praise  on  them,  while  they  have  loaded 
with  abuse  those  Gothic  nations  of  the  middle  period,  who 
have  bequeathed  us  a  far  richer  inheritance.  But  this  is  part 
of  the  game. 

Modern  systems  of  knowledge,  for  reasons  assigned,  have  a 
a  claim  to  our  preference,  founded  on  the  most  rational 
grounds.  At  the  same  time,  however,  if  we  are  desirous  to 
learn  the  state  of  science  in  former  ages,  the  labour  of  trans- 
lators has  placed  this  likewise  within  our  reach,  and  freed  us 
from  the  danger  of  being  misled  by  the  ambiguities  of  a  for- 
eign and  complicated  language.  It  is  worth  remarking  too 
that  a  version  in  the  vernacular  tongue  is  attended  by  anoth- 
er advantage,  founded  on  the  very  nature  of  the  human  mind, 
which  yet  perhaps  has  not  received  the  attention  it  deserves. 
It  is  this,  that  as  we  all  think  through  the  medium  of  our  na- 
tive speech,  whatever  ideas  are  imbibed  through  the  same 
channel  are  retained  by  more  numerous  as  well  as  more  pow- 
erful associations  ;  and  hence  are  always  more  at  our  com- 
mand. 

But  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  men,  interested  in  the  reign- 
ing system,  cry  out  against  the  unfaithfulness  of  translations, 
and  how  little  consistent  they  are  on  this  point.     They  talk  of 
it  as  a  thing  for  the  most  part  impracticable  to  clothe  becom- 
ingly a  classic  thought  in  modern  dress,  and  always  as  some- 
what irreverent  to   tear  otf  the  vesture  of  antiquity.      Mr. 
Kett  seems  not  a  little  puzzled  what  to  say  on  this  head.    He 
allows  our  language  to  be  "  energetic,  rich,  and   copious" — 
possessing  withal  a  philosophic  character  of  construction.  He 
confesses  too,  that  Latin  is  wanting  in  copiousness,  and  that 
Cicero  himself  complained  of  its  meagre  resources.      Yet  in 
the  very  face  of  these  concessions,  he  takes  some  pains  to  in- 
stil the  belief  that  no  translation  will  convey  the  true  mean- 
ing of  the  original.      Barrow  and  Knox,  as  might  be  expect- 
ed, rail  lustily   against  versions  of  every  kind,  good  or  bad  ; 
but  they  rail  in  vain,  for  the  image  of  the  Latin  teacher  is 
visible  in  every  page. 

Here  a  reflection  presents  itself,  of  which  all  who  have  had 

occasion  to  consult  authorities  on  such  matters  will  appreciate 

the  truth.     It  is  a  great  misfortune  that  most  didactic  writers, 

on  subjects  of  this  nature,  have  been  men  who  not  only  lived 

'  o 


60  LlIAL'TEB    V. 

"  under  the  shelter  of  academic  bowers,"  but  who  derived 
their  emoluments  from  offices  connected  with  the  support  of 
ancient  learning.  Thus  situated,  a  propensity  on  the  one 
hand  to  applaud  classical  studies  ;  and  the  dictates  of  truth 
and  justice  on  the  other  in  restraining  such  applause  ;  have 
often  entangled  them  in  a  dilemma  from  which  it  was  hardly 
possible  to  escape  but  through  vagueness  or  inconsistency  : — 
Whence  it  happens  that  these  qualities  are  generally  conspic- 
uous in  writers  of  this  description.  In  Mr.  Rett's  book  the 
effect  and  its  cause  are  both  very  discernible  ;  and  so  with 
Barrow,  Knox,  and  many  others.  When,  therefore,  we  meet, 
in  such  a  writer,  with  sentiments  or  reasonings  discordant 
with  each  other,  we  may  safely  take  to  be  sincere  whatever 
opposes  his  general  doctrine — still  more,  if  it  opposes  his  in- 
terest ;  and  since  every  thing  of  this  kind  must  have  been  ad- 
mitted reluctantly,  and  with  great  caution,  we  may  also  con- 
sider it  as  true.  It  is  on  these  principles  we  proceed  in  the 
ordinary  affairs  of  life  ;  and  the  practice  is  founded  in  com- 
mon sense.  These  considerations  will  apply  exactly  to  many 
of  the  authorities  already  quoted,  as  well  as  to  others  not 
yet  named. 

But  with  regard  to  the  capabilities  of  the  English  language, 
the  following  extract  from  Campbell  will  show  the  opinion  of 
a  man  free  from  constraint  of  any  kind,  and  in  all  respects  a 
competent  judge  : — "  The  materials,  (says  he)  which  consti- 
tute the  riches  of  a  language  must  always  bear  some  propor- 
tion to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  made  by  the  people. 
For  this  reason,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  that  Eng- 
lish is  considerably  richer  than  Latin,  and  in  the  main,  fitter 
for  all  the  subtle  disquisitions  of  philosophy  and  criticism."* 
So  likewise  Professor  Barron  says  of  English  : — "  In  point  of 
precision  and  accuracy  it  is  superior  to  Latin  and  equal  to  the 
Greek."  Our  dictionaries  too,  attest  its  ample  resources,  for 
while  classic  tongues  exhibit  only  about  30,000  words  each, 
Johnson  presents  us  near  50,000,  and  some  other  lexicograph- 
ers many  more.  Thus  we  see  how  totally  groundless  is  the 
common  scholastic  dogma,  that  our  mother  tongue  is  poor  and 
spiritless — incapable  of  reaching  the  compass  of  thought  in 
classic  literature.  It  is  not  so  ; — The  difficulty  of  translating 
most  certainly  does  not  lie  here  : — Whatever  obstacles  occur, 
and  enough  there  surely  are,  arise  from  the  obscurity  inherent 
in  ancient  writings — owing  partly  to  indistinctness  of  idea,  and 

■  Campbell,  page  432. 


CHAPTER   V.  £% 

.partly  to  an  ambiguity  characteristic  of  the  language.  It  is 
indeed  a  well  known  fact,  that  both  these  impediments  exist 
to  a  most  discouraging  extent — they  meet  every  student  at  the 
very  threshold  of  his  labours,  and  attend  him  obstinately  to 
the  close.  Nothing  less  than  extraordinary  talents  united  to 
the  most  indefatigable  perseverance  (such  as  translators  have 
usually  manifested)  can  have  any  chance  of  surmounting  them. 
A  few  perhaps  of  the  higher  grade  of  scholars,  who,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  collegiate  course,  have  devoted  many  subsequent 
years  to  the  classics,  may  do  as  well  by  reading  them  in  the 
original ;  but  nine  out  often,  possibly  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hun- 
dred, understand  their  author  better  in  the  form  of  translation. 
And  this  is  the  case  in  poetry  yet  more  than  in  prose.  The  un- 
learned reader  may  then  rest  assured,  that  he  loses  nothing  of 
the  sense  by  perusing  Homer  and  Virgil  in  the  pages  of  Pope 
and  Dryden  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  he  enjoys  a  harmony 
of  versification,  which  can  never  be  realized  from  the  origin- 
al, by  what  Mr.  Pickering  calls  our  barbarous  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing Greek  ;  or  what  Foster,  Horsley,  and  fifty  others 
consider  our  still  more  barbarous  practice  in  Latin.  I  would 
only  remark  here,  by  the  way,  that  the  change  of  pronuncia- 
tion, proposed  by  these  writers  respectively,  would  mend  the 
matter  not  one  atom. 

The  very  uncertainty  of  meaning,  of  which  we  have  just 
been  speaking,  and  the  depth  of  research  thereby  necessarily 
required,  are  alone  a  sufficient  reason  why  time  should  not  be 
wasted  on  ancient  authors  in  the  original.  And  as  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  evil,  no  better  evidence  need  be  wished,  or  could 
be  had,  than  the  confession  of  a  laborious  scholar  of  our  vi- 
cinity, who,  with  abilities  worthy  a  higher  aim,  has  passed  at 
least  twenty  years  of  his  life  between  Alpha  and  Omega.  Ii 
is  avowed  by  him,  that  a  cloud  of  vagueness  overshadows  the 
whole  of  Grecian  literature — and  no  doubt  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Roman.  "  The  imagination  faints  (says  he)  un- 
der the  mass  of  illustrative  learning,  necessary  to  a  perfect 
comprehension  of  their  works."*  And  again,  .man  Essay  on 
the  study  of  Greek,  while  deploring  the  unceasing  labours  of 
scholarship,  he  tells  us  that  "  by  far  the  greater  portion  have 
given  up  the  undertaking  in  utter  despair."*  Now  all  this  is 
perfectly  true,  though  in  fact  nothing  more  than  numbers  had 
already  believed,  and  not  a  few  before  confessed.  A  decla- 
ration, however,  so  manly  and  independent,   considering  the 

'-  North  Am.  Review,  No.  30,  page  187— and  No.  3,  New  Series,  page  209. 


6ii  CHAPTER   V. 

writer's  sphere  of  action,  should  justly  entitle  him  to  our 
warmest  applause.  In  fact,  the  determination  of  this  point 
alone,  (that  little  accurate  information  can  be  gained  from  an- 
cient authors)  by  one  who  has  been  favoured  with  peculiar 
opportunities  of  judging,  since  it  goes  far  to  repel  every  pre- 
tension to  usefulness,  nearly  settles  the  whole  question  ;  and 
could  the  public  be  prevailed  on  to  use  the  hint  as  it  ougm  to 
be  used,  by  expelling  all  this  ancient  vagueness  from  our 
schools,  we  should  then  indeed,  owe  a  lasting  obligation  to  the 
candour  of  its  author.  I  mean  not,  however,  to  insinuate  that 
such  an  effect  was  intended  ;  for  the  disclosure  may  have 
been  accidental  only — but  at  any  rate  the  truth  is  told,  and 
told  by  him.  The  misfortune  is,  that  confessions  of  this  na- 
ture are  apt  to  pass  unheeded,  merely  because  they  are  casu- 
al ;  whereas,  in  just  reasoning,  this  very  circumstance,  by  pre- 
cluding suspicion,  should  entitle  them  to  a  degree  of  consider- 
ation above  any  number  of  ex  officio  opinions,  propounded 
with  the  express  view  of  upholding  a  system. 

According  to  this  writer's  account,  the  classics  are  arrant 
coquettes,  courting  admiration  from  all,  but  permitting  famil- 
iarity to  none. 

From  causes  such  as  have  now  been  hinted  at,  the  stubborn 
problems  that  start  up  around  us  as  we  endeavour  to  penetrate 
the  mysteries  of  ancient  learning,  are  as  countless  in  number, 
as  they  are  refractory  in  their  nature.  To  decypher  and  elu- 
cidate has  been  the  unprofitable  occupation  of  thousands  and 
tens  of  thousands  of  commentators,  whose  lives  and  talents,  if 
wisely  directed,  might  doubtless  have  rendered  important  ser- 
vices to  their  fellow  men.  The  case  of  Aristotle  may  evince 
the  truth  of  our  present  remarks.  Among  the  philosophers 
of  old,  none  could  boast  higher  renown  that  the  subtle  Stagi- 
rite  ;  nor  is  there  one  who  so  long  and  so  triumphantly  sway- 
ed the  magic  sceptre  of  opinion  over  moderns  ;  nor  yet  one 
to  whose  works  the  superior  order  of  scholars  have  so  unre- 
mittingly devoted  themselves  : — Among  these  we  may  rank 
the  distinguished  author  of  Hermes,  and  Lord  Monboddo,  to- 
gether with  a  long  list  of  others,  both  English  and  continental. 
Edition  after  edition  has  been  laboured,  with  almost  pious 
zeal,  by  individuals  and  by  associations,  accompanied  with 
folios  of  commentaries  ;  as  if  the  world  had  no  security,  nor 
mankind  any  hope,  but  what  depended  on  a  just  conception 
of  heathen  philosophy. 

Last  of  all  in  this  goodly  train,  comes  Dr.  Gillies,  who  pub- 
lished a  new  version  of  that  noted  sage,  with  copious  annota* 


CHAPTER   V.  00 

lions  in  1797  ;  and  who  appears  to  think  himself  equal  (and 
probably  is  so)  to  any  of  his  predecessors.  Now  Gillies  not 
only  affirms,  but  as  many  think,  has  proved,  that  Harris,  Mon- 
boddo,  and  Hobbes,  as  also  Rapin,  and  divers  French  literati, 
had  grossly  misunderstood  their  Grecian  oracle  on  many  cardi- 
nal points.  Here  then  we  see  that  although  whole  lives,  almost, 
of  the  greatest  critics  in  Europe  were  spent  on  a  particular 
author,  yet  the  chance  is,  he  was  not  understood  after  all  ; 
and  even  that  he  is  not  understood  now.  This  may  seem 
nothing  wonderful  to  scholars,  because  they  know  it  is  not  un- 
common ;  but  what  may  well  surprise  both  them  and  us  is,  to 
find  Gillies  asserting  after  all  this,  that  the  language  of  Aris- 
totle, so  far  from  being  obscure,  is  the  "  most  copious  and  com- 
plete, and  also  the  most  precise  and  elegant  ever  employed  by 
any  philosopher" — Yet  so  he  says.  In  this  curious  case, 
though  but  one  of  a  multitude,  we  see  exemplified  the  insur- 
mountable difficulties  in  ancient  tongues,  and  a  deplorable 
misapplication  of  modern  genius.  Why  then  should  we  go 
on,  age  after  age,  adding  to  the  mass  of  time  and  talents  al- 
ready buried  in  this  gulph  of  oblivion. 

With  respect  to  the  general  merits  of  that  prince  of  Grecian 
sages,  they  are  sketched  by  the  learned  Brucker  in  a  few- 
words,  as  follows  : — "  As  the  result  of  the  brief  survey  we 
have  taken  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle,  it  may  be  asserted 
that  it  is  rather  the  philosophy  of  words  than  of  things  ;  and 
that  the  study  of  his  writings  tends  more  to  perplex  the  un- 
derstanding with  subtle  distinctions  than  to  enlighten  it  with 
real  knowledge."*  How  completely  is  all  this  verified  in 
Aristotle's  commentators.  And  yet,  how  true  soever  it  may 
be  of  him,  it  would  scarcely  be  less  true  of  the  whole  tribe 
of  ancient  dreamers. 

Whoever  supposes  that  the  usual  extent  of  classic  tuition  in 
this  country  will  impart  to  the  student  even  a  tolerable  un- 
derstanding of  ancient  authors  in  the  original,  makes  a  capital 
mistake  at  the  very  outset.  To  get  some  idea  of  the  magni- 
tude of  the  task,  we  have  only  to  see  what  the  thorough-bred 
scholars  of  Europe  deem  requisite  to  its  accomplishment. 

Doct.  Holmes,  President  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  tells 
his  pupils  (who,  it  should  be  observed,  usually  enter  that 
University  with  a  deeper  knowledge  of  the  languages  than  is 
possessed  on  leaving  ours)  that  preparatory  to  a  collegiate 


*  Brucker's  Hist,  of  Philo.  by  Enfield,  vol.  1.  p.  307. 


70  CUAPTBU   V. 

study  of  the  classics,  they  must  be  well  versed  not  only  in 
the  languages,  but  in  the  geography,  history,  laws,  manners, 
customs,  and  I  know  not  what  else,  of  ancient  times.  Of  all 
this,  he  says,  "  we  must  not  be  ignorant  if  we  propose  the 
classics  should  be  of  any  use  or  benefit  to  us."  Here  we 
have  already  a  noble  field  marked  out  for  the  classic  aspi- 
rant; but  this  is  not  half.  The  Doctor  goes  on  to  say  that 
"  thus  prepared"  the  classics  may  be  advantageously  read  in 
the  following  order :  "  in  Latin  (I  quote  his  words)  Plautus, 
Phedrus,  and  Terence  an  hundred  times"  and  then  twenty- 
one  other  authors  specifically  enumerated.  Here  we  see 
the  field  of  ambition  is  somewhat  enlarged.  The  Doctor, 
however,  adds  to  the  list  fifteen  Greek  writers  who  are  like- 
wise to  he  carefully  attended  to — making  altogether  about 
forty  authors,  whose  works  collectively  would  amount  per- 
haps to  four  or  five  hundred  volumes.  These  are  to  be  stu- 
died, he  says,  with  great  care,  noticing  all  the  peculiarities  of 
each  writer,  both  as  to  idea  and  expression ;  and  keeping  a 
common-place  book  for  remarks — He  further  enjoins  that  stu- 
dents should  constantly  exercise  themselves  also  in  transla- 
tions and  compositions ;  and  takes  care  to  caution  them  that 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures  must  be  diligently  pursued  at  the 
same  time.  Lastly,  he  urges,  on  his  pupils  (which  seems  to 
me  the  only  rational  part  of  his  advice)  the  necessity  of  join- 
ing their  constant  prayers  with  his  for  success  in  this  under- 
taking. I  leave  it,  however,  to  the  reader  to  judge  if  any 
thing  short  of  a  miracle  could  ensure  the  accomplishment  of 
all  this,  I  do  not  say  within  the  period  of  collegiate  instruc- 
tion, but  within  the  common  range  of  human  life — and  yet 
this  thorough  scholar  assures  us  the  classics  are  of  no  use 
without.  The  question  then  is  reduced,  according  to  him, 
nearly  to  the  following  shape — is  it  the  sole  end  of  human  ex- 
istence to  understand  the  classics  ?  Or,  as  the  only  other  al- 
ternative, shall  we  study  them  but  partially  and  not  under- 
stand them  at  all  ?  Such  is  the  option  the  Doctor  leaves  us. 
We  add  only  that  his  view  of  the  subject  seems  fully  to  sanc- 
tion the  plaintive  tone  of  a  former  quotation — that  u  the  mind 
mints  under  the  mass  of  illustrative  learning"  necessary  to  be- 
come a  real  scholar — which,  extravagant  as  it  may  seem,  is 
yet  a  solemn  truth. 

But  apart  from  ambiguity,  pagan  literature  (original  or 
translated)  considered  as  a  source  of  intelligence,  is  embar- 
rassed by  other  serious  difficulties  ; — one  is,  that  a  large  por- 
tion of  what  is  there  related  as  fact,  is  deprived,  from  various. 


CHAPTER   IV*  71 

causes,  of  that  degree  of  certainty,  without  which  no  one  can 
or  ought  to  be  satisfied.  In  historical  matters  this  is  particu- 
larly the  case — so  much  so  that  the  utility  of  the  study  is  in  a 
great  measure  intercepted  by  a  mixture  of  fact  and  fable  so 
intimate  as  to  leave  us  quite  in  doubt  what  to  credit  or  what 
to  reject.  The  discordancies  among;  Roman  as  well  as  Gre- 
cian historians  even  on  important  points,  (to  say  nothing  of 
subordinate)  relating  to  their  own  and  preceding  times,  are 
no  less  perplexing  than  numerous.  But  were  they  much  less 
frequent,  daily  experience  might  still  teach  us  that  a  single  dis- 
puted fact  has  often  so  close  a  connexion  with  others  better 
substantiated,  that  the  whole  becomes  vitiated  as  legitimate 
grounds  of  judgment: — One  link  being  broken,  the  chain  is  no 
longer  entire.  The  certainty  that  classic  history  is  in  some 
measure  fabulous,  and  the  uncertainty  in  what  degree,  go  far 
to  divest  it  of  every  thing  that  might  serve  as  lessons  of  experi- 
ence, because  the  essential  characteristic,  truth,  is  want- 
ing. In  short,  it  partakes  the  fiction  of  romance,  without  its 
fascination. 

History,  indeed,  of  all  kinds,  considered  as  furnishing  rules 
of  conduct,  can  no  otherwise  be  regarded,  generally  speak- 
ing, than  as  deceptive  and  unsafe  ;  for  as  Chesterfield,  with 
great  good  sense  remarks,  "  there  never  was  a  case  stated  or 
even  known  by  any  historian,  with  all  its  circumstances ; 
which,  however,  ought  to  be  known  in  order  to  be  reasoned 
from."  And  as  to  events  in  remote  times,  even  their  most 
material  circumstances  are  variously  described.  Ancient 
history,  therefore,  will  seldom  serve  any  other  purpose  than 
that  of  amusement ;  and  this  too  not  of  the  most  edifying 
kind.  In  truth,  the  friends  of  the  classics  are  fast  dropping 
off  in  this  particular.  Even  the  veteran  champion,  Knox, 
who  takes  the  field  on  most  occasions  in  their  defence,  aban- 
dons them  here  as  a  forlorn  hope ;  "  Herodotus  (says  he)  one 
of  the  earliest  historians,  writes  a  romance  almost  as  fictitious 
as  Don  Quixote  but  not  near  so  ingenious  nor  entertaining — 
and  yet  he  is  called  the  father  of  history ;  he  might  as  well 
be  called  the  father  of  lies."  And  again  "  Your  true  classi- 
cal historian  feels  no  difficulty  for  want  of  matter :  whm  he 
finds  it  not,  he  makes  z/."*  If  indeed  it  was  important  to  my 
argument  to  show  the  worthlessness  of  early  pagan  history, 
fhe  task  would  be  nearly  taken  off  my  hands  by  the  recorded 


Kaox's  Winter  Evenings,  Sth 


72  CHAPTER   V. 

opinions  of  men,  who,  though  brought  up  with  all  the  attach- 
ments of  a  classical  education,  became  at  least  partially 
weaned  from  its  influence  in  after  years.  Two  or  three  such 
opinions  will  at  any  rate  not  come  amiss :  tt  We  must  consi- 
der (says  Johnson)  how  little  real  history  there  is — I  mean 
real  authentic  history.  That  certain  kings  reign'd,  and  certain 
battles  were  fought  we  can  depend  upon  ;  but  all  the  colour- 
ing, all  the  philosophy  of  history  is  conjecture."*  Mr.  Heron 
observes  on  the  same  subject,  "  History  is  merely  a  species 
of  romance,  founded  on  events  that  really  happened  ;  but  the 
bare  events  as  stated  by  chronologists  are  alone  true; — their 
causes,  circumstances,  effects  as  stated  by  historians,  depend 
entirely  on  the  fancy  of  the  relater"t — Or  take  the  following 
from  a  recent  English  periodical ;  "  The  critical  science  of 
history  was  not  known  to  the  ancients ;  but  easy  or  ornamen- 
tal narration — great  and  prominent  events,  boldly  and  strik- 
ingly brought  out  by  the  skilful  colouring  of  the  writer,  satisfi- 
ed the  demands  of  every  reader.":}:  Such  quotations  might  be 
multiplied  without  end. 

But  I  go  a  step  farther,  and  maintain  that  were  every  single 
fact  known  and  fiction  entirely  discarded,  still  ancient  history 
would  be  a  most  unsafe  guide  to  present  conduct.  The  axiom, 
that  like  causes  produce  like  effects,  though  unquestionably 
true  in  the  abstract,  and  practically  available  in  physics,  be- 
comes almost  nugatory  in  morals,  and  wholly  so  in  politics — 
the  reason  for  which  may  be  found  in  the  extreme  difficulty, 
not  to  say  the  impossibility,  of  appreciating  either  cause  or 
effect.  It  is  another  axiom,  or  rather  common  saying,  (from 
which  indeed  the  former  seems  to  derive  its  plausibility  in 
matters  of  history)  that  human  nature  is  every  where  the 
same.  But  this  likewise  is  not  true  in  any  practical  sense,  if 
it  be  true  at  all.  Of  the  human  character  in  its  embryo 
state,  (if  I  may  be  allowed  the  expression,)  that  is,  as  man 
comes  into  the  world,  no  idea  can  be  formed.  What  is  meant 
by  human  nature,  if  it  means  any  thing,  is  the  character  of  man 
as  affected  by  education,  habit,  and  the  numberless  influences 
attending  social  life.  Now  all  this,  so  far  from  being  the 
same,  we  know  to  be  every  where  different;  and  between  pe- 
riods far  apart,  or  nations  far  remote,  it  differs  astonishingly. 
This  is  too  plain  to  need  illustration.     Hence  no  sound  moral- 

•  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  Vol.  2.  p.  373. 

t  Heron's  Letters — p.  216. 

t  Monthly  Mag.    Rev.  of  Cicero's  late  work. 


CHAPTER   V.  73 

ist  or  politician  would  venture  to  take  any  assigned  cause  and 
effect  as  described  by  Thucydides  or  Livy  and  argue  that  an 
effect  precisely  similar  would  now  result.  This  would  be  ab- 
surd. It  is  common  enough,  to  be  sure,  to  hear  a  young  ora- 
tor expatiate  on  something  that  Cesar  or  Pompey  said  or  did, 
to  show  us  what  we  ought  to  do  now.  But  such  things  are 
merely  the  manoeuvres,  or  at  best  the  flourishes  of  eloquence. 
This  sort  of  game,  successful  enough  I  dare  say  in  the  popu- 
lar assemblies  of  Rome  and  Athens,  where  nine  out  of  ten 
could  neither  read  nor  write,  will  at  most  but  amuse  a  modern 
audience  without  convincing  their  understandings.  Such 
trickery  now  is  always  laughed  at. 

In  descending  nearer  to  our  own  times,  the  annals  of  history 
may  no  doubt  be  consulted  with  more  propriety,  and  for  a 
twofold  reason — because  they  are  better  authenticated,  and 
because  the  period  treated  of  bears  a  closer  analogy  in  man- 
ners, laws,  and  customs,  to  the  age  we  live  in.  For  these  rea- 
sons a  reference  to  events  of  recent  date  may  frequently  sug- 
gest a  course  of  conduct  well  adapted  to  present  emergency. 
Yet  even  modern  records,  to  be  rendered  profitable,  must  be 
studied  and  reflected  upon,  not  simply  read. 

With  regard  to  the  moral  tendency  of  historical  writings 
in  general,  the  common  idea  is  that  they  leave  on  the  mind  a 
salutary  impression.  But  whoever  will  peruse  an  elegant  and 
sensible  dissertation  on  this  subject  in  Walker's  Essays 
(Rev.  Geo.  Walker)  we  venture  to  say  will  have  many  doubts 
— as  far  at  least  as  the  ancients  are  concerned.  The  Edin- 
burgh Reviewers  have  very  justly  characterized  the  whole 
retinue  of  Greek  and  Roman  story  tellers  as  "superficial 
teachers  of  wisdom  and  marvellously  indifferent  to  vice  and  vir- 
tue" It  is  a  little  comforting  to  see  truth  and  reason  thus  oc- 
casionally bursting  the  fetters  of  prejudice;  and  as  we  hail 
their  image  with  delight,  I  may  be  indulged  in  giving  anoth- 
er quotation  from  the  pen  of  these  same  gentlemen.  "  The  ad- 
miration of  Rome,  (say  they)  is  one  of  the  worst  heresies  we 
bring  with  us  from  school;  and  it  cannot  admit  of  doubt  that 
the  elegance  acquired  from  an  early  intercourse  with  ancient 
authors  is  dearly  purchased  by  the  perverted  notions  of  glory 
and  greatness  generally  imbibed  at  the  same  time.  A  wise 
teacher  of  youth  will  always  endeavour  to  counteract  impres- 
sions favourable  to  the  character  of  the  Romans,  by  represent- 
ing them  in  their  true  colors,  as  a  selfish,  perfidious,  cruel,  super- 
stitious race  of  barbarians,  endued  with  the  scanty  and  doubtful 
10 


74  CHAPTER   V. 

virtues  of  savage  life,  but  deformed  by  more  than  its  ordinary  cx- 
cesses."*  Here,  reader,  is  a  faithful  picture  of  that  celebrated 
people,  on  whom  many  still  doat  with  unmeasured  partiality. 

The  essay  whence  this  passage  is  taken  is  admirably  well 
adapted  to  dispel  existing  delusions;  and  it  is  particularly  re- 
ferred to,  with  equal  candour  and  judgment,  in  Everett's  de- 
fence of  Christianity,  for  this  very  purpose.]  The  sentiments 
it  contains  are  called  by  him  wholesome  sentiments,  and  very 
properly,  because  they  declare  the  truth — the  reader  will 
judge  if  they  accord  with  what  he  is  accustomed  to  hear  on 
that  topic.  The  admirers  of  antiquity  however  need  not  sus- 
pect the  learned  professor  was  about  playing  truant  to  the 
cause.  In  that  instance,  it  should  be  recollected,  he  was  act- 
ing the  part  of  a  christian  advocate,  where  the  dignity  of  his 
subject  would  naturally  overrule  all  questions  of  policy. 
More  recently,  it  must  be  owned,  he  is  wont  to  touch  the 
classic  lyre  in  sweetest  notes  of  praise.  Had  he  chosen  to 
corroborate  the  argument  he  was  pursuing  in  the  case  alluded 
to,  he  might  have  obtained  an  apt  quotation  from  one  equally 
skilled  in  classic  lore,  and  equally  aware  of  the  horrible  vices 
that  disgraced  the  classic  age.  "  How  barbarous  (says  Bol- 
inbroke)  were  those  represented  to  be  who  broke  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  Goths  for  example,  or  the  Lombards;  and  yet 
how  much  less  barbarous  did  they  appear  than  the  Greeks 
or  Romans — what  prudence  in  their  government — what  wis- 
dom in  their  laws."!  He  might  have  recollected  also  what 
Johnson  said  of  the  Romans,  that  "when  they  were  poor 
they  robbed  mankind,  and  when  they  grew  rich  robbed  one 
another." 

Such  then  were  the  Romans ;  and  if  any  one  imagines  the 
Grecians,  when  justly  represented,  would  appear  to  better  ad- 
vantage, let  him  peruse  the  last  essay  in  No.  51,  of  the  Quar- 
terly Review,  where  he  will  find  a  portrait  if  possible  yet 
more  disgusting.  The  truth  really  is,  that  of  all  civilized 
people,  ancient  or  modern,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  the 
most  morally  debased,  and  by  all  odds  the  most  politically 
corrupt.  "  Their  generals  and  officers  (says  Heron)  were 
abandoned  to  a  sensuality  that  disgraces  the  very  name  of 
man — while  Pindar,  Sophocles,  Eschylus,  and  others  of  their 
learned  men,  were  given  up  to  a  vice  too  black  to  mention."§ 


*  Edin.  Rev.  vol.  21.  p.  378  &  396. 
f  Everett's  Defence,  p.  437. 
X  Bolinbroke's  Works  vol.  4.  p.  47. 
§  Heron's  Letters,  p.  318. 


CHAPTER   V.  75 

But  unfortunately,  such  is  the  system  we  follow  that  all 
this  is  carefully  concealed,  at  least  for  a  time  till  the  pride  of 
scholarship  takes  root  ;  and  the  ancients  are  held  up  to  our 
youth,  during  the  whole  course  of  education,  as  models  of 
every  thing  that  can  dignify  and  adorn  human  nature.  Thus 
we  actually  practise  deception  to  induce  them  to  leave  what 
in  my  judgment  were  better  unlearned ;  and  thus  sentiments 
are  infused  the  very  opposite  to  all  that  is  true,  or  fair,  or 
even  wholesome.  These  are  facts  in  the  case,  appealing  di- 
rectly to  common  sense  as  well  as  common  honesty;  and  the 
conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  them  are  sufficiently  obvious. 

The  defects  already  noticed  in  classic  literature,  of  the  fab- 
ulous on  one  side,  and  the  obscure  on  the  other,  could  hardly 
fail,  one  would  think,  to  subtract  largely  from  its  value  with 
all  who  consider  truth  an  essential  ingredient. 

But  it  may  be  also  remarked,  in  continuation,  that  indepen- 
dently of  what  is  known  to  be  fabulous,  or  of  what  is  discor- 
dant, or  of  what  is  ambiguous,  there  are  by  no  means  a  few 
matters  of  fact,  so  called,  which,  though  free  from  these  objec- 
tions, are  exposed  at  least  to  great  doubt,  if  not  total  disbe- 
lief, from  their  own  inherent  incredibility.  One  thing  of  this 
kind,  eminently  curious  in  itself,  and  having  been  well  treated 
by  a  late  excellent  scholar,  and  still  better  philosopher  of  our 
own,  (yet  partial  enough  to  antiquity  in  all  conscience)  may 
serve  for  illustration.  I  allude  to  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus, 
and  their  influence  on  the  Spartan  nation,  as  explained  by 
Fisher  Ames.*  As  the  ancient  story  goes,  that  people  exhib- 
ited a  political  phenomenon,  unlike  any  thing  that  ever  exist- 
ed before  or  since — the  wonder  of  the  world  from  that  day  to 
this.  It  is  well  known  that  all  the  old  writers  concur  in  re- 
presenting the  military  discipline  and  civil  constitution  estab- 
lished by  the  Spartan  law-giver,  as  having  been  in  full  force 
over  the  whole  free  population  of  the  State — that  the  system 
imposed  by  him  was  unspeakably  vexatious,  disgusting,  and 
tyrannical ;  but  at  the  same  time  such  as  to  excite  in  the 
whole  community  a  sort  of  passion,  as  it  were,  for  self-denial, 
restraint,  and  suffering — and  we  are  further  told  that  this  last- 
ed seven  hundred  years — thus  displaying  a  miracle  far  sur- 
passing all  others  on  record.  Such  is  the  view  of  those  far- 
famed  institutes,  in  which,  let  it  be  observed,  all  classic  auth- 
ors agree.  But  if  the  reader  could  be  persuaded  to  peruse 
Mr.  Ames's  essay,  he  would  be  perfectly  convinced  that  the 

*  Ames's  Works. 


76  CHAPTEtt   V. 

story  as  a  whole,  however  sanctioned  by  ancient  writers,  is 
preposterous  to  the  last  degree.  In  what  respect  Mr.  Ames's 
solution  has  been  anticipated  by  others,  my  own  reading  does 
not  inform  me;  but  it  is  evidently  given  by  him  as  new.  Many 
have  thought  the  old  account  incredible,  and  Rollin  among  the 
rest — yet  all  have  gone  on  to  transcribe  the  whole  story  from 
Plutarch  and  others  as  if  it  were  perfectly  true. 

Mr.  Ames's  solution  is  this — that  the  austere  education  and 
rigid  discipline  of  the  Spartans,  of  which  we  have  heard  so 
much,  instead  of  extending  as  the  ancient  tale  assumes  to  the 
whole  people,  was  confined  to  the  aristocracy  and  the  sol- 
diery— classes  already  existing  and  governing  the  State  be- 
fore the  time  of  Lycurgus — that  the  design  of  his  code  was, 
by  enuring  these  classes  to  mental  exertion,  to  fatigue,  to  pri- 
vation, and  thereby  making  them  really  superior  as  men,  to 
fit  them  for  the  duties  either  of  the  field  or  the  Senate ;  and 
that  the  object  of  all  this  was  to  enable  them  to  retain  more 
securely  a  monopoly  both  of  power  and  privilege,  which  they 
had  long  enjoyed,  but  which  had  latterly  been  endangered  by 
popular  commotions.  This  explication,  by  suggesting  ade- 
quate motives  on  the  part  of  those  who  actually  bore  the  se- 
verities of  that  extraordinary  scheme  of  laws,  removes  the 
grand  stumbling  block  by  which  the  old  story  is  embarrass- 
ed ;  and  it  so  far  reconciles  (as  Mr.  Ames  shows)  what  before 
appeared  anomalous  and  incredible  as  to  win  our  full  assent. 

Lycurgus  then,  so  far  from  being  an  enlightened  and  gene- 
rous patriot,  was  the  wily  Machiavel  of  early  times.  Nothing 
was  farther  from  his  intention  than  to  give  to  the  Spartan  na- 
tion a  free  and  liberal  government,  for  his  whole  ingenuity 
was  exerted  in  devising  new  plans  of  despotism — perhaps, 
however,  he  was  not  the  less  a  patriot  ;  there  was  far  too  little 
intelligence  among  the  people  at  large,  and  a  great  deal  too 
much  corruption  to  admit  of  rational  freedom.  At  what 
epoch  indeed  in  Greek  or  Roman  history,  do  we  the  find  peo- 
ple enjoying  that  security  of  person  and  property,  and  that 
liberty  of  opinion  and  action,  which  ac  are  accustomed  to 
regard  as  the  only  evidence  of  a  free  government?  At  no  time 
was  there  any  thing  approaching  it.  Sparta,  it  would  seem 
by  this  explanation,  instead  of  being  essentially  a  republic, 
under  a  form  somewhat  monarchical,  was  always  a  despotic 
aristocracy.  Instead  of  political  liberty,  there  was  only  ty- 
ranny; and  in  lieu  of  patriotism  as  a  ruling  passion,  there 
was  little  else  among  the  higher  orders  than  ambition,  selfish- 
ness, and  avarice;  while  among  the  lower  reigned  ignorance, 


CHAPTER    V.  77 

slavery,  and  vice.  Such  in  reality  were  the  prominent  fea- 
tures of  the  Spartan  character;  to  which,  however,  were 
united  two  others,  equallv  conspicuous  in  the  savages  of  our 
own  forests — ferocious  valor  and  political  cunning.  Yet  by 
keeping  the  former  traits  out  of  sight,  and  unduly  extolling  the 
latter,  the  poets  and  orators  of  other  days,  backed  by  enthu- 
siasts of  ours,  have  held  up  to  view  an  imaginary  portrait  of 
Spartan  virtue,  and  called  unceasingly  on  posterity  to  admire 
and  to  imitate. 

The  truth  of  the  matter  is  precisely  what  our  author  states 
"  Spartan  virtue  did  not  most  certainly  include  morals" — that 
is  to  say  it  was  not  virtue  in  any  sense.  Well,  therefore, 
may  we  apply  to  this  and  perhaps  to  every  other  Grecian 
commonwealth,  a  reflection  of  Hume  on  the  Romans,  "  so 
depraved  in  private  life  were  that  people  whom  in  their  histo- 
ries we  so  much  admire."  If  there  be  any  thing  at  which 
exception  might  be  taken  in  the  masterly  essay  of  Mr.  Ames,  it 
is  the  homage  inadvertently  paid  1o  ancient  error  by  apologiz- 
ing for  its  exposure.  How  severe  must  be  the  requisitions  of 
classic  faith  when  it  imposes  so  mortifying  a  task. 

Now  does  not  this  Spartan  fable  prove  that  there  are 
some  things  on  which  ancient  historians  are  in  perfect  accord, 
which  yet  are  undeserving  of  credit?  And  does  it  not  fur- 
ther prove  that  a  gross  absurdity  has  been  for  ages  received 
and  sheltered  rather  than  the  authenticity  of  ancient  tradi- 
tions should  be  arraigned  ?  This,  however,  is  but  one  among 
numberless  things  of  like  nature  in  early  history,  which  might 
disclose,  on  near  inspection,  the  very  seal  and  signature  of  fic- 
tion. Nevertheless  such  things  are  constantly  talked  about, 
are  written,  harangued,  and  reasoned  about,  as  infallible 
truths. 

There  is,  indeed,  much  room  to  believe,  that  many  false- 
hoods, ascertained  or  suspected,  are  still  upheld  for  no  better 
reason  than  what  Bacon  suggests — because  they  supply  com- 
modious allusions.  Matters  of  this  sort,  though  really  fables, 
are  habitually  referred  to  as  facts,  either  in  the  form  of  meta- 
phor to  adorn  a  discourse,  or  of  simile  to  illustrate — and  thus 
invested  with  the  garb  of  truth,  they  are  handed  down  from 
age  to  age,  like  the  Dutch  story  of  the  Bohon  Upas,  long  af- 
ter their  falsity  is  detected.  Of  this  nature  precisely,  as  I 
conceive,  is  the  reputed  conflagration  in  the  7th  century,  of 
the  famous  Alexandrian  library,  by  order,  as  the  story  runs, 
of  the  Caliph  Omar,  on  whom  classical  men  have  been  pour- 
ing out  their  wrath  for  the  last  half  a  dozen  centuries.     Gib- 


78  CHAPTER   V. 

bon,  wilh  several  others,  have  treated  the  tale  as  fabulous ; 
and  Drake  in  his  "  Literary  Hours,"  has  shown  there  is  no 
ground  to  believe  in  any  destruction  of  the  kind.*  True  or  false, 
however,  an  allusion  to  this  event  has  served  the  turn  of  many 
an  orator  and  many  a  writer,  to  smooth  a  period  or  balance 
an  antithesis;  and  I  dare  say  it  will  continue  to  perform 
these  important  functions,  for  some  years  to  come.  Of  Greek 
and  Roman  times,  on  the  other  hand,  1  might  run  over  a  long 
list  of  convicted  errors  still  current  in  our  schools  as  genuine 
matters  of  history.  Upon  the  whole  then  may  it  not  fairly  be 
asked,  how  can  records  or  narrations  be  entitled  to  any 
credit,  where  truth  is  so  entangled  with  fiction  and  so  difficult 
to  be  separated. 

Indeed,  as  regards  even  the  latest  portion  of  the  classic  era, 
the  very  golden  age  of  Roman  literature,  numerous  are  the 
questions  in  national  affairs  on  which  we  have  yet  to  seek 
elucidation.  A  writer  in  a  late  North  American,  who  is  as 
good  a  scholar  probably,  as  any  of  his  neighbors,  sums  up 
the  matter  as  follows.  "  After  all  that  has  been  written  on 
this  subject,  (the  Roman  government,)  it  is  astonishing  how 
little  is  really  known  with  certainty  respecting  it ;  and  how 
many  points  which  one  would  expect  to  find  matters  of  public 
notoriety,  are  very  imperfectly  understood."t  For  my  part, 
however,  I  do  not  participate  in  this  writer's  astonishment. 
When  we  consider  the  entire  absence  of  political  and  statisti- 
cal science  at  the  period  alluded  to,  and  before — the  little  sci- 
ence indeed  of  any  kind — the  interrupted  state  of  communi- 
cation between  different  nations,  and  different  parts  of  the  same 
nation-the  total  want  of  any  rapid  and  correct  mode  of  diffusing 
intelligence  such  as  we  now  enjoy  by  aid  of  the  press — the 
loose  way  of  thinking  then  prevalent  on  all  subjects,  and  the  still 
looser  way  of  writing — when  we  consider,  in  short,  the  scanty 
means  which  classic  writers  possessed  of  ascertaining  facts, 
and  the  variety  of  inducements  they  may  have  had  to  misre- 
present them,  the  greater  wonder  is,  that  we  should  know  so 
much  of  those  ages  as  we  really  do  ;  or  to  speak  more  pro- 
perly, perhaps,  that  we  should  fancy  we  know  so  much. 

However,  the  tide  of  delusion  is  perhaps  on  the  ebb.  Al- 
most every  late  inquiry  into  ancient  history  seems  to  have 
expunged  something  from  the  catalogue  of  facts,  to  add  to  the 

*  Drake's  Literarv  Hours,  33d  Essay, 
t  North  Am.  Review,  No.  40,  p.  63. 


CHAPTER    VI.  79 

Scroll  of  fiction ;  and  the  time  may  come  when  little  more 
will  be  admitted  as  certain,  with  regard  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  than  that  formerly  there  were  people  of  that  name; 
that  they  made  a  great  noise  in  the  world  and  did  a  great 
deal  of  mischief;  that  they  wrote  many  books,  which  after 
lying  in  obscurity  for  a  long  period,  were  at  length  revived, 
continued  in  favor  for  several  centuries,  and  again  passed  out 
of  fashion.  That  such  will  be  the  state  of  the  case  a  hun- 
dred years  hence  is  not  so  very  improbable  as  some  may 
imagine — not  more  improbable,  at  any  rate,  than  it  was  two 
centuries  ago  that  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  would  be  over- 
thrown.    Yet  the  peripatetic  sage  has  now  scarely  a  disciple. 

The  various  considerations  that  have  now  been  submitted, 
seem  calculated,  on  a  just  estimate,  to  abridge  materially  all 
rational  confidence  in  the  history  of  the  pagan  world ;  and  I 
was  induced  to  submit  them  under  the  persuasion  that  this 
sort  of  reading  is  much  too  highly  thought  of.  Whether  they 
be  allowed  to  have  any  weight  or  not,  is  however  quite  imma- 
terial to  the  main  argument ;  for  in  whatever  estimation  such 
history  be  held,  the  whole  of  it,  or  nearly  the  whole,  is 
spread  before  us  in  plain  English — a  form  in  which  it  may  be 
more  fully  comprehended  even  by  the  illiterate  than  by  the 
bulk  of  scholars  in  its  ancient  dress. 

And  now  to  conclude,  I  would  ask  the  reader,  what  sub- 
ject, what  science,  what  branch  of  knowledge  it  is,  on  which 
we  ought  now  to  refer  back  to  the  ancients  for  instruction.  In 
every  thing  but  history,  they  are  in  fact  already  given  up  ; 
and  it  would  not  be  going  to  far  to  say  that  in  history  they 
are  scarcely  worth  having.  At  all  events,  for  this  or  any 
other  purpose  of  information,  the  original  language  is  not 
wanted. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Classical  studies  not  the  best  means  of  strengthening  the  under- 
standing— nor  necessary  to  Jill  up  the  time  usually  devoted  to 
education. 

The  next  argument  on  the  classic  list  which  I  propose  to 
examine  is,  that  Greek  and  Latin  afford  a  salutary  exercise  to 
the  mind  and  induce  useful  habits  of  application.  And  what 
if  it  be  so  ?    Is  there  any  thing  peculiar  in  this  ?    Who  does 


80  CHAPTER    VI. 

not  see  that  as  much  may  be  said  of  each,  and   every  study 
pursued  in  any  of  our  schools,  even  the  very  lowest. 

But  to  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  common  style  (one 
might  even  say,  the  approved  style)  of  prating  on  this  topic, 
we  may  take  a  sample,  and  a  pretty  fair  one,  from  the  North 
Am.  Rev.  (vol.  13.  p.  365  ;)  which,  however,  is  only  a  new 
version  of  sentiments  often  found  in  its  earlier  pages,  and  be- 
fore that,  in  many  others.  The  writer  is  speaking  of  the  dead 
languages  as  a  mental  exercise,  and  he  says — "  We  know  of 
no  means  compared  with  this  for  the  purpose  of  communica- 
ting the  powers  of  quick  and  delicate  discrimination,  and  of 
imparting  clear  perceptions  of  words  and  things."  To  take 
this  part  of  the  statement  by  itself,  what  does  it  amount  to  ? 
As  to  things,  one  can  hardly  determine  its  import  in  this  con- 
nexion ;  but  at  any  rate,  as  the  ancients  were  but  superficial 
observers  of  things,  and  much  given  to  useless  speculations  of 
every  kind,  we  have  on  all  subjects  better  sources  of  informa- 
tion than  their  writings  afford.  Then  as  to  clear  perceptions 
of  words,  and  delicate  discrimination  in  their  use,  whether  of 
Greek  or  Latin,  it  has  already  been  proved  that  this,  when  at- 
tained, can  be  of  no  service  in  English.  The  Reviewer  goes 
on — "  But  in  language,  there  are  so  many  shades  of  meaning, 
differing  from  each  other  almost  imperceptibly — the  beauty 
of  an  expression  so  often  depends  on  a  peculiarity  in  the  use 
of  one  word,  or  in  the  arrangement  of  several — the  distinguish- 
ing spirit  of  an  author,  especially  in  a  foreign  tongue,  is  so 
difficult  to  be  perfectly  apprehended,  and  that  double  process  of 
judgment,  which  consists  in  first  ascertaining  the  meaning  of  a 
word  in  its  original  connexion,  and  then  selecting  the  corres- 
ponding term  in  another  language,  is  so  constantly  going  on, 
that  all  the  powers  of  observation,  comparison,  and  in  short 
whatever  constitutes  acquired  taste,  are  constantly  called 
forth  and  exercised." 

Now  on  all  this  it  may  be  remarked  in  the  first  place,  that 
ere  a  student  can  begin  the  exercise  here  supposed,  he  must 
already  have  learnt  as  much  of  the  languages  as  most  pupils 
attain  after  5  or  6  years  close  study  in  our  best  schools.  He 
must  in  fact  be  already  something  of  a  critic.  And  when  he 
has  reached  this  point,  on  what  are  his  powers  of  observation, 
comparison,  and  taste,  to  be  exerted  ?  Nothing  more,  as  here 
admitted,  than  on  words  and  expressions  in  a  foreign  language 
— on  expressions  wholly  unlike  our  own — in  a  language  too, 
which  contains,  as  we  have  already  shown,  no  information  of 
any  value  not  found  in  our  own. 


CHAPTER   TI.  81 

Granting  then,  by  way  of  argument,  that  the  study  of  for- 
eign idioms  has  all  the  fitness  here  claimed  as  a  stimulus  to 
the  intellect — granting  this,  I  say,  why  not  take  some  living 
language,  and  thus  secure  the  means  of  enjoying  a  more  co- 
pious and  more  instructive  literature  ;  and  at  the  same  time  a 
new  medium  of  oral  communication,  which,  in  a  multitude  of 
cases,  might  essentially  promote  the  interest  as  well  as  the 
gratification  of  its  possessor?  As  a  study,  it  would  be  equally 
beneficial,  and  in  the  same  way ;  as  a  possession,  incalculably 
more  useful.  But  the  fact  is,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  there 
is  no  peculiar  advantage  of  this  kind,  in  the  study  of  lan- 
guage—quite the  contrary.  The  Reviewer  indeed  seems  to 
think  that  nothing  is  so  desirable  as  to  be  able  to  practise  the 
art  of  decyphering — of  extracting  some  definite  ideas  from  ob- 
scure or  ambiguous  composition — a  doctrine,  which,  if  assent- 
ed to  would  confer  on  riddles  and  conundrums,  a  dignity  they 
have  never  yet  assumed.  But  suppose  him  right  in  this  no- 
tion, are  we  obliged  to  travel  abroad  in  search  of  obscurity  ? 
— have  we  not  enough  trying  examples  in  our  mother  tongue? 
The  reviewer  himself,  on  this  hypothesis,  may  have  other 
merit  than  that  of  good  precept. 

Without  entering  into  the  labyrinth  of  metaphysics,  and 
analyzing  the  various  faculties  of  the  mind,  or  to  speak  more 
properly,  its  various  modes  of  action,  it  is  evident  that  exercise 
in  any  shape  has  a  tendency  to  enlarge  its  powers.  No  study, 
no  occupation,  is  without  use  in  this  respect — the  only  ques- 
tion relates  to  the  degree.  Nor  is  it  worth  while  to  inquire 
here  which  of  the  mental  faculties  (to  retain  the  common 
phrase)  stands  most  in  need  of  cultivation.  But  since  it  is 
allowed  that  all  should  be  stimulated  in  a  certain  proportion, 
and  perhaps  no  very  unequal  one,  a  solid  objection,  founded 
on  this  admission,  will  lie  against  the  learned  tongues.  The 
objection  is,  that  such  studies  call  into  action  the  faculty  of 
memory  almost  exclusively — leaving  the  mind  in  regard  to  its 
other  powers,  quite  dormant. 

I  am  sensible,  however,  that  the  current  of  opinion  is  against 
me.  Unwearied  pains  are  taken,  and  with  abundant  success, 
to  spread  abroad  the  belief  that  classic  tuition  is  the  best  pos- 
sible discipline  for  youthful  minds — and  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  hear  the  doctrine  laid  down  in  this  very  phrase- 
ology. Yet  should  any  one  ask  what  is  meant  by  discipline, 
the  explanation  would  seldom  be  intelligible  ;  or  when  it  is, 
as  in  the  case  already  cited,  it  furnishes  no  argument  of  any 
11 


82  CHAPTER   Via 

force.  The  fact  is,  when  language  is  made  a  juvenile  study, 
the  mind  is  practised  almost  exclusively  in  forming  those 
trains  of  association  which  enable  it  to  recall  past  ideas — that 
is  to  say  in  the  process  of  memory — whereas  it  should  be  ex- 
ercised at  least  as  much  in  comparing,  discriminating,  dedu- 
cing and  judging;  or  in  other  words,  in  eliciting  new  ideas, as 
well  as  in  reviving  the  old.  The  mental  habits  conducive  to 
recollection  are  not  therefore  the  best  adapted  to  invigorate 
the  understanding.  Among  the  phenomena  of  thought,  mem- 
ory seems  to  perform  but  a  subordinate  office.  It  is  a  sort  of 
purveyor  to  the  mental  powers  generally — a  day-labourer 
that  brings  the  stones  and  the  mortar  with  which  more  skilful 
workmen  are  to  raise  the  edifice.  But  though  a  faculty  not 
the  most  dignified,  it  is  yet  of  excellent  service,  and  singular 
activity.  It  is  incessantly  at  work  in  every  thing  we  study, 
and  every  thing  we  do ;  and  from  this  very  circumstance  it 
gains  naturally,  and  of  itself,  a  vigour  and  promptness  beyond 
the  other  intellectual  powers.  Why  then  should  it  receive 
any  extraordinary  cultivation  ?  A  faculty  so  constantly  at 
task  would  seem  to  require  no  special  culture  at  all. 

That  classical  studies  are  of  the  nature  here  described,  will 
scarcely  be  denied  by  any  who  have  watched  the  progress  of 
youthful  education  ;  and  Bishop  Hurd,  already  referred  to  at 
page  48,  has  pointed  out  the  very  same  defects.  If  further 
authority  were  wanted  in  so  plain  a  case,  I  might  again  allude 
to  a  ripe  scholar  in  a  neighbouring  town,  who  has  on  several 
occasions  assisted  us  in  the  preceding  pages — one  who  not  only 
is  master  of  the  various  dialects  taught  in  our  highest  seminaries, 
but  who  has  likewise  paid  much  attention  to  the  philosophy  of 
language,  which,  as  far  as  I  know,  is  taught  in  none  of  them. 
He  admits  explicitly  that  any  man  of  a  tenacious  memory  may 
become  an  interpreter  of  languages* — a  truth  corroborated  al- 
so by  every  day's  experience,  since  we  find  that  in  this  sort 
of  application,  the  brightest  genius  will  often  yield  the  palm 
to  dulness.  In  short,  a  rapid  proficiency  in  Greek  or  Latin 
is  no  indication  of  genius  ;  perhaps  the  reverse.  It  is  worth 
remarking  too,  that  the  kind  of  memory  brought  into  play  by 
this  means  is  what  Stewart  calls  a  casual  memory,  and  is  rank- 
ed by  him  the  lowest  in  point  of  merit.  And  further,  not  on- 
ly does  the  memory  rely  on  casual  associations,  but  these 
again  arc  of  a  very  limited  nature  ;  so  that  if  the  intellect 
becomes  wedded  to  habits  so  circumscribed,  even  memory  it- 

*  North  Am.  Rev.  vol.  9.  page  181. 


CHAPTER   VI.  83 

self  is  weakened  in  respect  of  other  subjects — for  it  is  a  great 
mistake  to  suppose  that  practice  in  one  way  gives  facility  in 
all.  In  short,  the  whole  current  of  thought  in  the  remem- 
brance of  words,  is  quite  opposite  to  that  mode  of  associating 
ideas,  (by  resemblance  and  analogy)  considered  by  all  late 
metaphysical  writers,  as  at  once  denoting  and  creating  a  vig- 
orous mind. 

The  objection  now  under  consideration,  has  been  found  to 
press  so  hard  againt  the  classical  system,  that  many  have  en- 
deavoured by  a  bold  manoeuvre  to  convert  it  into  a  recom- 
mendation. It  is  assumed  that  memory  is  really  all  we  should 
attempt  to  cultivate — that  nothing  more  can  be  done  in  youth 
than  to  amass  a  stock  of  materials,  to  be  worked  up  by 
thought  and  reflection  to  some  useful  purpose  in  after  years. 
Those  renowned  teachers,  Barrow  and  Knox,  argue  in  no 
small  degree  on  this  hypothesis ;  and  a  writer  in  the  Port- 
folio, of  no  mean  standing  in  scholarship,  takes  the  ground 
openly.  "  Consider  (says  he)  the  period  of  life  usually  spent 
in  this  acquisition,  which  may  be  stated  from  8  to  14  or  15  ; 
what  but  the  memory  can  be  employed  during  this  age  ?" 
But  a  theory  so  exceedingly  degrading  to  the  human  mind  is 
fortunately  altogether  unsound.  We  all  know  that  lads  even 
from  our  common  schools  come  out  at  the  age  of  14  or  15  not 
only  with  memories  well  furnished,  but  what  is  infinitely  bet- 
ter, with  capacities  quickened  and  improved.  Thus  we  see, 
that  the  very  extravagances  to  which  many  resort  for  shelter 
in  avoiding  the  objection  in  question,  are  a  further  proof  of  its 
validity. 

But  Dr.  Rush  well  observes,  "  it  is  quite  time  to  distinguish 
between  a  scholar  and  a  philosopher."  Let  us  see  then  what 
has  been  said  by  men  of  philosophic  minds  against  whipping 
on  the  memory  to  its  utmost  speed,  while  reason  and  invention 
are  palsied  by  inaction.  Speaking  of  the  latent  state  of  the 
reasoning  faculty,  Locke  remarks  as  follows  :  "  The  greater 
number  are  those  whom  the  ill  habit  of  never  exerting  their 
thoughts,  has  disabled — the  powers  of  their  minds  are  starved 
by  disuse,  and  have  lost  that  reach  and  strength  which  nature 
fitted  them  to  receive  from  exercise."  And  again,  "  If  their 
memories  retain  well,  one  may  say  they  have  the  materials  of 
knowledge,  but  like  those  for  building,  they  are  of  no  advan- 
tage, if  there  be  no  use  made,  but  to  let  them  lie  heaped  up 
together."*      Shephard,  in  his  book  on  Education,  observes, 

*  Locke  on  the  Understanding,  sec.  13. 


84  CHAPTER   VI. 

"  It  seldom  happens,  that  men  remarkable  for  the  extent  of 
their  memory  in  the  recollection  of  dates,  and  other  minutiae, 
are  distinguished  for  solidity  of  judgment."*  So  too  Duncan, 
in  his  essay  on  genius  :  "  How  often  do  we  see  men  load 
their  memories  with  facts  and  circumstances,  with  dates  and 
names,  without  inference  or  conclusion — and  how  often  do  we 
find  learning  consist  in  the  servile  repetition  of  the  opinions  of 
another  without  the  consciousness  of  understanding  in  the 
person  who  adopts  them."t  Quotations  of  this  nature  might 
be  multiplied  without  end.  Most  writers  of  the  higher  order 
have  raised  their  voice  against  the  common  practice  of  throw- 
ing into  the  mind  the  mere  shadow  of  knowledge  without  the 
substance.  Among  them  all  Miss  Edgeworth  stands  pre-emi- 
nent for  cogency  of  reasoning  against  this  seductive  error. 
The  chief  aim  of  her  excellent  treatise  on  Education  was  to 
abolish  all  that  parrot-like  learning  which  formed  the  very  es- 
sence of  preceding  systems  (and  yet  bears  no  small  sway  in 
ours  ;)  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  give  full  scope  to  the  inven- 
tive powers,  and  thus  qualify  the  pupil  to  think  and  act  for 
himself.  The  principles  involved  in  the  following  quotation 
from  Dr.  Reid,  have  received  from  her  admirable  pen  the 
most  varied  illustration — "  Of  all  the  faculties  of  man  (says 
he)  that  of  invention  bears  the  highest  price.  It  resembles 
most  the  power  of  creation — we  admire  the  man  who  shows  a 
superiority  in  finding  out  the  means  of  accomplishing  an  end." 
Amid  the  universality  of  praise  called  forth  by  the  ingenious 
disquisitions  of  the  authoress  alluded  to,  the  North  American 
Review  comes  in  with  its  tribute,!  not  barely  commending 
the  prominent  feature  in  her  theory,  but  fortifying  it  by  sev- 
eral new  reflections  equally  just  and  pertinent.  Now  by  all 
this  and  much  more  of  like  nature  within  our  reach,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  preference  shown  to  memory  as  the  leading 
object  of  early  tuition,  is  wholly  unsanctioned  by  writers  of 
comprehensive  minds  and  disinterested  views. 

The  case  then  is  this,  that  unless  we  are  willing  to  permit 
the  reason,  the  judgment,  the  invention,  the  taste,  with  various 
other  faculties  of  a  high  order,  to  remain  passive  and  unde- 
veloped, while  memory  alone  is  improved,  we  shall  be  forced 
to  conclude  that  Greek  and  Latin  are  nowise  entitled  to  the 
supremacy  they  have  so  long  enjoyed. 


*  Shephard  and  Joyce  on  Education,  page  247. 
t  Duncan's  Essay  on  Genius,  page  67. 
X  Vol.  2.  New  Series,  page  357. 


CHAPTER  vr.  85 

But  suppose  if  you  please,  that  my  reasoning  on  this  point  be 
not  admissible  in  itsfullextent,ornotatall;  the  objection  would 
disappear,  it  is  true,  but  no  adverse  claim  would  be  establish- 
ed. Before  the  superior  pretensions  of  the  languages  can  be 
allowed,  their  claims  must  be  stated  and  proved  ;  not  taken 
upon  trust.  But  no  writer  within  my  knowledge  has  ever 
maintained  even  a  plausible  argument  on  the  peculiar  efficacy 
of  classical  studies  ;  and  my  own  observation  leads  to  a  very 
different  conclusion.  It  is  not  proposed,  however,  to  go 
through  the  endless  ramifications  of  a  negative  argument.  1 
wholly  deny  the  alleged  advantage  of  such  studies,  and  call 
on  their  advocates  to  specify  in  what  it  consists,  or  at  least,  to 
inform  us  where  an  explanation  may  be  found. 

Before  quitting  the  topic  it  is  not  amiss  to  remark,  that  X 
am  aware  of  the  complaint  here  urged  against  the  languages 
being  also  applicable,  though  in  far  less  degree,  to  other 
branches  in  themselves  substantially  useful.  Geography,  His- 
tory, English  Grammar,  and  several  more,  depend  considera- 
bly on  similar  habits  of  mind.  But  the  evil  instead  of  being 
mitigated  by  this  circumstance,  is  augmented,  and  our  argu- 
ment derives  new  force.  If  the  memory  is  already  overwork- 
ed in  studies  of  immediate  utility,  it  should  be  relieved  in  such 
as  are  mere  accomplishments  ;  and  the  change  should  begin 
where  the  evil  is  most  felt,  and  least  compensated,  which  un- 
questionably is  in  the  languages.  Hence,  by  discarding  these, 
and  substituting  other  exercises,  requiring  more  originality  of 
thought,  the  minds  of  youth  would  receive  a  new  energy, and 
their  acquirements  would  be  rendered  more  profitable. 

If  the  considerations  now  presented  have  any  force,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  common  school  exercise  of  committing  pieces  to 
memory,  and  otherwise  taxing  that  faculty  so  heavily,  as  it  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  annoying  tasks  imposed  on  children, 
so  is  it  one  of  the  most  useless — while  at  the  same  time  none 
is  more  apt  to  beget  an  aversion  to  books,  and  thus  lead  the 
way  to  slothful  and  idle  habits.  Now  in  Greek  and  Latin 
this  practice  is  carried  to  extremes ;  and  when  early  years 
are  devoted  to  the  study,  the  evil  is  unavoidable;  because  the 
mind  being  then  too  feeble  to  cope  with  the  innumerable  diffi- 
culties of  the  case,  little  more  can  be  done  than  to  crowd  the 
memory  with  something  resembling  knowledge  in  hope  of  its 
becoming  really  such  at  a  future  period.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  the  whole  evaporates  ere  the  conversion  is  effected  ; 
new  objects  take  possession  of  the  mind  to  the  exclusion  of 
former  occupants ;  and  thus  it  happens  that  a  practice  found- 


86  CHAPTEtt   VI. 

ed  on  nothing  but  custom  so  often  terminates  in  nothing  but 
ignorance.  A  change  of  system,  therefore,  in  whatever  way, 
could  hardly  be  for  the  worse.  That  most  other  pursuits 
are  less  objectionable  in  this  view — some  incomparably  less — 
will  not  be  disputed. 

If  the  chief  end  of  education  be  to  unfold  and  invigorate 
the  intellectual  powers  generally  and  simultaneously,  no  stu- 
dies are  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  than  Mathematics  and 
Natural  Philosophy ;  for  without  enumerating  the  various 
benefits  resulting  therefrom,  it  is  enough  to  mention  as  one  of 
the  most  obvious,  and  certainly  not  the  least  important,  that 
by  these  means  the  mind  becomes  habituated  to  the  best  pos- 
sible method  of  reasoning.  Habits  are  acquired  of  observing, 
investigating,  comparing,  and  judging,  worth  all  that  the  an- 
cients, or  even  moderns,  have  laid  down  as  a  separate  art  un- 
der the  name  of  logic.  It  has  been  elegantly,  though  not  ac- 
curately, said  of  History,  that  it  is  philosophy  teaching  by 
experience ;  and  we  may  with  far  greater  propriety  say  of 
Mathematics,  that  it  is  logic  taught  by  example.  "  Would  you 
have  a  man  reason  well  (says  Locke)  you  must  use  him  to  it 
betimes ;  you  must  exercise  his  mind  in  observing  the  con- 
nection of  ideas  and  following  them  in  a  train.  Nothing  does 
this  better  than  mathematics,  which,  therefore,  I  think  should 
be  taught  all  those  who  have  time  and  opportunity — not  so 
much  to  make  them  mathematicians  as  to  make  them  reason- 
able creatures."  Doct.  Barrow  likewise  remarks  on  this  no- 
ble science  as  follows  : — "  It  contributes  more  perhaps  than 
any  other  intellectual  acquisition  to  preserve  the  imagination 
in  due  subjection  to  the  judgment.  It  is  allowed  to  form  or 
to  teach  the  most  valuable  logic ;  and  its  definitions  are  the 
natural  source  of  precision  in  our  ideas  "  (vol.  2.  p.  287.) — 
This  sort  of  study  therefore,  considered  as  a  mental  stimulus, 
is  obviously  superior  to  the  languages ;  and  so  in  some  mea- 
sure is  almost  every  other. 

One  object  of  all  instruction,  both  early  and  late,  undoubt- 
edly is  to  store  the  mind  with  useful  knowledge  ;  but  a  still 
greater  object  is  to  give  it  that  general  expansion  and  that 
quickness  of  apprehension,  which  while  they  qualify  its  pos- 
sessor to  grapple  with  the  more  complex  and  abstruse  specu- 
lations of  mature  age,  will  fit  him  also  for  acting  with  prompt- 
ness, judgment,  and  effect,  in  the  busy  scenes  of  life.  Now 
classical  studies,  it  is  evident,  furnish  in  no  degree  this  sort  of 
preparation 


CHAPTEK   VI.  87 

But  to  turn  to  another  argument — it  is  pretended  that  the 
term  of  years  ordinarily  dedicated  to  a  liberal  course  of  edu- 
cation, cannot  be  well  spent  without  including  the  languages. 
If  by  this  it  be  meant  that  in  the  manner  our  schools  are  nozo 
constituted  the  period  from  eight  to  eighteen  would  not  other- 
wise be  fully  occupied,  1  have  no  great  hesitation  in  admit- 
ting the  proposition.  But  what  is  this  but  saying  in  other 
words  that  our  schemes  of  instruction  are  defective — a  point 
1  am  as  little  inclined  to  controvert  as  any  classical  votary 
among  us.  It  is  indeed  partly  on  this  very  defect  in  the 
reigning  system  that  I  ground  my  complaint  of  the  languages, 
for  unquestionably  it  is  Greek  and  Latin  which  have  brought 
things  to  this  state  by  detruding  other  and  more  useful  branch- 
es of  knowledge.  Was  it  really  true  that  no  different  plan 
could  be  devised  for  affording  constant  and  profitable  exercise 
to  the  minds  of  youth,  the  argument  would  have  some  validity. 
But  an  idea  so  extravagant  has  never  yet  been  distinctly 
avowed,  much  less  established.  It  would  have  been  nearly 
devoid  of  truth  even  at  the  period  when  classical  learning  was 
revived;  and  surely  must  be  wholly  so  now  when  knowledge 
is  not  only  wonderfully  extended  in  degree,  but  greatly  mul- 
tiplied in  kind.  Without  stopping  to  controvert  so  preposter- 
ous a  notion,  it  is  enough  to  allude,  in  complete  refutation,  to 
the  seminary  at  Westpoint — where  it  has  been  evinced  by  ac- 
tual experiment  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  every  body,  that  the 
entire  term  of  study  before  mentioned  may  be  completed, 
and  what  is  better,  may  be  actively  and  profitably  employed, 
without  bestowing  any  portion  on  the  learned  tongues.  We 
have  also  another  instance,  not  greatly  inferior,  in  Capt.  Par- 
tridge's Institution  at  Norwich,  where  classical  studies,  though 
not  actually  excluded,  are  permitted  to  engross  but  a  small  share 
of  attention.  Whoever  will  take  the  trouble  to  inspect  the  ample 
schedule  of  useful  and  liberal  arts  and  sciences  taught  at  ei- 
ther of  these  places,  will  see  at  once  how  extremely  frivolous 
is  the  pretence  that  suitable  objects  of  study  are  yet  wanting. 
With  regard  to  Captain  Partridge's  school,  the  admission  of-1 
Greek  and  Latin  must  be  considered  as  subtracting  consider- 
ably from  its  merit ;  and  we  may  venture  to  predict  that  un- 
less he  conforms  his  scheme  to  that  of  Westpoint,  he  will' 
strive  in  vain  to  impart  that  thorough  and  efficient  education 
for  which  the  latter  is  so  justly  celebrated. 

However  true  then  it  may  be  that  our  plans  are  in  general 
too  limited  and  inadequate,  no  argument  can  thence  be  drawn 
in  favour  of  the  Languages : — we  have  only  to  amend  the  sys- 


88  CIIAPTEK   VI. 

tern  by  judiciously  enlarging  the  circle  of  studies — a  change 
imperatively  demanded  by  the  existing  circumstances  of  the 
world,  and  the  actual  state  of  human  knowledge.  The  for- 
mation of  a  Public  School  in  our  own  metropolis  for  higher 
attainments  in  various  branches,  exclusive  of  the  languages, 
may  be  regarded  as  an  auspicious  commencement  of  such  a 
change  here ;  and  an  indication  that  more  correct  views  art* 
becoming  prevalent.  In  any  experiment  of  this  nature,  how- 
ever, one  great  desideratum  is  that  the  superintendent  should 
have  full  faith  in  its  efficacy  ;  or  at  any  rate,  should  divest 
himself  of  all  predilection  for  antiquated  plans.  No  man  who 
realty  believed  with  a  writer  in  the  North  Am,  Rev.  (vol.  1 3,  p. 
3G5.)  that  "it  is  preposterous  to  call  that  education  tolerably 
perfect,  which  is  not  founded  on  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Latin  at  least,  if  not  the  Greek,1'  would  be  likely  to  give  to 
such  an  establishment  all  the  effect  of  which  it  might  be  sus- 
ceptible. With  impressions  like  that,  he  would  embark  in  an 
experiment  against  his  own  judgment ;  and  as  men  seldom 
engage  cordially  in  what  they  do  not  approve,  a  scheme  in* 
trinsically  good  might  altogether  fail  for  want  of  interest  on 
the  part  of  the  master.  Fortunately  however,  the  seminary 
in  question  was  opened  under  the  care  of  an  instructer  whose 
zeal  in  the  cause  was  a  sufficient  pledge  that  academic  tenets 
should  have  no  influence;  whose  success  under  the  improved 
system  was  such  as  to  furnish  the  best  evidence  against  his 
own  theory  ;  and  who  knows  besides  as  well  as  most  of  us, 
probably  much  better,  that  the  well  turned  compliments  so  of- 
ten paid  by  scholars  to  what  they  call  their  Alma  Mater,  will 
seldom  bear  a  rigid  interpretation. 

The  excellent  establishment  now  alluded  to  merits  in  every 
respect  the  most  liberal  patronage  from  the  public  ;  and  I  see 
no  good  reason  why  the  course  of  tuition  should  not  ere  long 
be  made  as  comprehensive  and  as  perfect  as  that  of  West- 
point.  Even  on  its  present  footing,  the  diversity  and  the  impor- 
tance of  branches  already  taught,  and  well  taught,  are  admira- 
bly calculated  to  imbue  the  minds  of  youth,  not  indeed  with 
superficial  or  ornamental  learning,  but  with  substantial  know- 
ledge available  in  every  station  of  life.  And  when  the  intrin- 
sic excellence  of  an  education,  founded  like  this  on  the  broad 
basis  of  utility,  shall  be  justly  appreciated,  the  public  will  be 
convinced  that  our  cumbersome  Latin  system,  which  has 
reigned  so  long  and  been  such  a  greedy  devourer  of  our  mu- 
nicipal resources,  may  be  very  advantageously  lain  aside. 
Independently,  however,   either  of  the  high  cost  or  the  low 


CHAPTER   VII.  89 

value  of  classical  learning  to  students  in  general,  a  variety  of 
reasons  might  be  urged  against  upholding  the  languages  at 
public  expense.  But  it  falls  not  within  our  present  design  to 
dwell  on.  considerations  relating  to  particular  schools ;  being 
firmly  persuaded  that  the  whole  system,  however  modified  or 
however  supported,  should  have  been  long  ago  permitted  to 
pass  away  with  the  times  and  circumstances  that  gave  it 
birth. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Classical  learning  worth  little  as  a  resource  ;  and  not  much,  as  a 
facility  to  foreign  living  languages. 

"  The  chief  advantage  of  a  good  education  (says  Aristotle) 
is  to  teach  us  how  to  employ  our  leisure."  A  sentiment  quo- 
ted and  approved  by  Dr.  Knox  ;  yet  like  most  other  apho- 
risms from  the  same  abundant  fountain  of  dogmatism,  it  is 
wide  of  the  truth.  The  object  of  education,  justly  described, 
rather  is,  to  qualify  us  for  performing  with  propriety  the  ac- 
tive duties  of  life,  and  to  teach  us  in  some  measure  what  those 
duties  are — though  certainly  the  means  of  employing  intervals 
of  leisure,  in  a  rational  way,  should  not  pass  unheeded. 

That  an  acquaintance  with  the  learned  tongues  may  be 
made  the  instrument  of  harmless  pleasure  is  undeniable  ; 
but  it  is  no  less  true  that  equal  advantage  attends  every 
living  language,  as  likewise  numberless  other  pursuits,  both 
literary  and  active.  Whatever  we  contract  a  fancy  for,  may 
of  course  be  made  subservient  to  our  gratification.  Nor  is 
there  any  danger  now-a-days  of  men  becoming  converts  to 
Cicero's  hypocritical  and  cynical  doctrine  that  "  all  pleasure 
is  contrary  to  virtue." 

The  recommendation  of  Greek  and  Latin,  on  the  score  of 
amusement,  is  however  but  little  dwelt  upon  ;  the  reason  for 
which  may  be  found  in  the  notoriety  that  ancient  writers  are,  in 
point  of  fact,  but  seldom  resorted  to  for  such  purposes.  It  is 
well  known  that  not  one  in  ten,  perhaps  not  one  in  a  hundred, 
who  labour  on  the  classics,  at  school  and  college,  have  re- 
12 


90  CHAPTER   VII. 

course  to  them  habitually  in  riper  years  for  recreation.  The 
major  part,  on  receiving  their  diploma,  close  their  books  for 
life.  It  is,  indeed,  but  fair  to  infer,  from  what  occurs  after  the 
student's  emancipation  from  college  restraint,  that  in  reality 
there  is  nothing  alluring  in  the  classic  page  ;  which,  on  the 
contrary,  still  presents  the  repulsive  aspect  of  a  task,  rather 
than  the  fascination  of  amusement.  And  here,  by  the  way, 
we  have  another  proof,  if  more  were  wanted,  that  little  infor- 
mation can  be  drawn  from  that  quarter  ;  for  by  the  very  con- 
stitution of  our  nature,  the  attainment  of  knowledge  is  almost 
invariably  accompanied  with  pleasure.  Every  new  idea  we 
meet  with  in  books,  is  a  sort  of  discovery  announced  by  oth- 
ers ;  and  discoveries  are  always  gratifying. 

But  why  talk  about  ancient  literature  as  a  resource,  when  the 
very  men,  who  are  loudest  in  its  praise,  read  a  hundred  pages 
of  English,  for  one  of  Greek  or  Latin.  Nay,  could  we  take 
a  peep  behind  the  curtain,  and  view  even  our  professed  schol- 
ars at  their  leisure  moments,.!  suspect  we  should  find,  in  three 
cases  out  of  four,  Homer  and  Virgil  slumbering  on  the  shelf, 
while  Scott  and  Irving  contend  for  preference  at  the  reading 
table.  We  should  find  many  who  will  just  thumb  a  leaf  or  two 
in  Horace  before  breakfast,  and  then  sit  down  to  a  Scotch 
novel  for  the  rest  of  the  day.  Let  any  one  inquire  (confiden- 
tially) among  his  learned  friends,  and  all  this  will  be  verified. 
We  may  safely  conclude  then  that  the  few  who  evince  a 
steady  attachment  to  ancient  authors,  if  not  more  apparent 
than  real,  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  ;  and  must  be 
characterized  by  something  peculiar  in  their  taste,  their  dis- 
position, or  their  mental  habits. 

If  then,  the  relish  of  classical  dainties  be  so  seldom  durable,- 
how  can  it  be  judicious  to  incur  such  great  expense  in  the 
mere  attempt,  and  perhaps  an  unsuccessful  one,  to  provoke  an 
appetite  ?  There  would  seem  little  wisdom  in  confining 
our  children  for  eight  or  ten  years  of  their  lives,  and  at  a  cost, 
perhaps,  of  a  couple  of  thousand  dollars,  to  Greek  and  Latin, 
with  a  chance  of  ten  to  one  that  when  they  graduate,  their 
books  will  be  handed  over  to  a  new  class  of  students,  who  in 
following  a  like  course,  are  destined  to  exhibit  the  same 
symptoms  of  reluctant  acquisition,  and  willing  forgetfulness. 
Such,  however,  is  the  usual  effect,  and  still  the  system  con- 
tinues— which  can  be  accounted  for  perhaps,  in  no  other  way 
than  by  the  factitious  value  attached  to  this  routine  of  study — 
that  is,  by  the  mere  eclat  of  a  diploma. 


CHAPTER   VII.  91 

But  suppose,  if  you  will,  though  the  odds  are  against  it,  that 
a  predilection  for  classical  reading  be  really  formed,  the  ques- 
tion arises,  in  what  estimation  it  should  be  held.     It  is  allowed 
on  all  hands,  that  those  kinds  of  amusement  deserve  the  pref- 
erence, which,  while  they  act  as  a  pleasing  and  healthful  ex- 
ercise to  the  mind  and  body,  contribute  at  the  same  time  to 
intellectual   improvement,  or  influence   most  favourably  the 
moral  character,  or  produce  on  the  whole,  in  these  or  other 
ways,  the  most  salutary  effects.     Consequently,  the  choice  of 
employments  to  fill  up  the  intermission  of  active  duties,  should 
be  determined  by  the  benefits  they  superadd.     Now  in  appor- 
tioning a  value  to  the  dead  languages  on  this  principle,  it 
would  seem,  if  our  view  of  them   be  correct,  that  in  reality 
they  but  seldom  effect  the  purpose  of  entertainment,  and  can 
never  effect  any  thing  more.     In  point  of  merit,  therefore, 
they  yield  to  divers  other  studies,  conducive  to  further  and 
more  valuable  ends.     Of  this  nature,  for  example,  are  the  va- 
rious  branches    of   natural    philosophy    and   mathematics ; 
which,  according  to  Dr.  Aikin,  "  take  the  lead  of  all  mental 
pursuits   in   extent,  variety,  and   dignity."      Of  this   nature, 
likewise,  is  the  important  doctrine  of  ethics,  together  with 
most  other  liberal  arts  and  sciences  ;    but  above  all,  that  no- 
blest of  sciences,  agriculture.     In  the  same  class  too,  we  may 
rank  the  captivating  study  of  natural  history.     Now  each  and 
every  one   of  these  pursuits,  has  a  direct  application  to  the 
purposes  of  life,  which  surely  never  can  be  said  of  the  lan- 
guages. 

Furthermore,  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  consider 
well  if  the  modes  of  recreation,  for  which  we  endeavour  to 
inspire  a  taste,  be  capable  of  sustaining  a  permanent  interest. 
The  human  mind  is  proverbially  fickle  ;  and  its  passions  are 
so  continually  at  work  in  soliciting  indulgence,  that  there  is 
always  danger  of  the  moral  principle  being  overcome.  Among 
youth  especially,  what  is  proper  and  laudable  is  too  often  a 
matter  of  only  secondary  inquiry  ;  the  first  question  will  always 
be,  is  it  interesting  ?     And  here,  also,  classical  literature  fails 
entirely.     Generally  speaking,  (I  appeal  to  observation,)  the 
moment  emulation  ceases  and  the  strife  of  academic  rivalship 
is  over,  its  relish  is  gone.     How  very  different  in  this  respect 
are  the  pursuits  just  referred  to,  which  are  alike  edifying  and 
engaging — they  are   the  source,  from  their  very   commence- 
ment, of  such  genuine  delight ;    they   requite  so  abundantly 
the  natural  and  eager  curiosity  of  the  human  mind  ;  they  fur- 
nish at  the  same  time  so  much  information  adapted  to  all  situ 


92  CHAPTER  VII. 

ations  ;  that  when  taste  is  once  put  in  that  train,  it  is  not  only 
ardent  but  durable  ;  never  satiated  by  indulgence,  but  gaining 
new  force  as  knowledge  accumulates.  Accordingly,  it  is  a 
common  remark,  that  no  researches  are  followed  with  so  much 
enthusiasm  as  those  of  natural  philosophy  and  natural  histo- 
ry ;  and  for  this  very  reason,  nothing  can  have  a  more  friend- 
ly influence  on  the  moral  character,  or  present  a  stronger  bar- 
rier against  temptation. 

Indeed,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  classical  studies,  generally 
speaking,  offer  no  other  allurement  than  the  fame  of  scholar- 
ship. Few  ever  hope  to  reap  any  pleasure  from  them  at  any 
period  ;  and  with  those  who  do,  the  promised  period  seldom 
arrives — patience  becomes  exhausted  in  expectation — till  at 
length  the  mind  is  willing  to  be  employed  in  almost  any  way 
that  can  afford  more  immediate  satisfaction.  If  this  be  not 
true,  how  happens  it  that  students  so  joyously  bid  adieu  to 
their  Alma  Mater,  nor  cast  "  one  longing  lingering  look  be- 
hind ?"  Why  else  does  a  collegiate  degree  so  generally  ope- 
rate like  an  act  of  divorce  between  a  scholar  and  his  books — 
and  why  is  it  the  parties  so  seldom  come  together  again  in  af- 
ter life  ?  But  I  shall  be  accused,  perhaps,  of  exaggeration  or 
misrepresentation.  Take  then  the  opinions  of  those  who 
speak  from  experience — take  the  following  confession  from 
what  was  designed  to  be  an  eulogium  on  classical  studies  : — 
"  Our  acquisitions  (says  the  writer)  are  as  unsatisfactory  as 
they  are  limited,  and  at  the  close  of  our  college  life  we  gladly 
escape  from  ancient  literature  as  from  a  thorny  labyrinth,  in 
which  we  have  been  compelled  to  wander  by  the  tyranny  of 
custom  ;"— (N.  A.  Rev.  vol.  11,  p.  421.)  Here  then  we  have 
the  whole  truth  incautiously  exposed  by  a  professed  apologist 
— and  a  simple  reader  would  naturally  expect  that  one  who 
had  himself  been  lacerated  in  the  thorny  labyrinth,  would  be- 
seech his  fellow  mortals  to  shun  the  treacherous  maze,  or  get 
out  as  soon  as  possible.  But  this  is  not  the  game — the  advica 
is,  that  we  should  enter  cheerfully,  and  remain  in  it  all  our 
lives.  Such,  however,  are  the  inconsistences  their  scheme  in- 
volves ;  and  so  far  from  being  rare,  they  may  be  detected  in 
almost  every  writer  who  attempts  to  justify  a  course  of  educa- 
tion, prevailing  only  in  virtue  of  ancient  title,  without  any 
adaptation  to  the  present  wants  of  mankind. 

There  is  yet  another  respect  in  which  classical  studies  lose 
incalculably  compared  with  other  recreative  employments. 
There  is  nothing  healthful  or  invigorating  about  them  ;  but 
directly  the  reverse.      One  reason,  without  doubt,  is  the  ex- 


CHAPTER   VII.  93 

treme  difficulty  of  becoming  so  far  master  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  tongues,  and  the  respective  styles  of  their  authors,  as 
to  make  that  sort  of  reading  agreeable — grateful  to  the  mind 
and  the  feelings.  Even  among  the  most  erudite  scholars,  the 
number  is  but  small  who  would  think  of  taking  up  a  classic 
volume,  as  they  do  a  drama,  romance,  or  poem,  in  their  na- 
tive speech,  merely  for  relaxation.  "  How  many  are  there 
(says  Professor  Brown)  who  willingly  join  in  expressing  ven- 
eration for  works,  which  they  would  think  it  a  heavy  burden 
to  read  from  beginning  to  end."  Indeed,  the  sages  of  old 
wear  a  most  forbidding  countenance  ;  their  writings  are,  literal- 
ly speaking,  a  study,  and  a  very  laborious  one,  all  the  wajr 
through.  Hence,  the  most  unremitting  assiduity,  and  habits 
entirely  sedentary,  are  indispensable  to  success  ;  and  these, 
we  all  know,  have  an  evident  tendency  to  impair  the  bodily 
health.  As  a  proof,  there  have  been  not  a  few  among  the 
shining  stars  of  scholarship,  whose  eager  aspirations  in  this 
sterile  path  of  learning  had  robbed  their  physical  system  of 
its  natural  and  necessary  repose — whose  bloom  of  health  had 
been  chased  away  by  poring  over  the  occult  refinements  of 
Greek  and  Latin — who  in  short  had  persevered  in  trimming 
bright  the  midnight  lamp  of  study  till  the  lamp  of  life  grew 
dim,  or  was  wholly  extinguished.  This  is  no  chimera,  for 
we  have  witnessed  the  sad  result  in  several  melancholy  exam- 
ples. We  have  followed  to  the  grave  more  than  one  ingenu- 
ous noble  minded  youth,  immolated  on  the  shrine  of  classic 
ambition. 

It  was  before  observed,  when  considering  the  languages  as 
a  source  of  knowledge,  that  we  seem  to  forget  the  age  we  live 
in — a  remark  still  more  pertinent  in  the  point  of  view  now 
presented.  Surely,  those  who  would  send  us  to  the  ancients 
for  amusement,  must  intentionally  shut  their  eyes  to  the  infi- 
nitely greater  resources  of  modern  literature — so  vast,  so  va- 
ried, so  admirably  adapted  to  please  as  well  as  instruct : — 
What  length  of  life,  what  intensity  of  reading,  could  ever  ex- 
haust the  hundredth  part  of  the  excellent  books  in  our  own 
language — to  say  nothing  of  catalogues  almost  equally  rich  in 
every  European  tongue.  Then  with  regard  to  the  compara- 
tive merits  of  ancient  and  modern  works,  far  abler  pens  than 
mine  would  fail  in  doing  justice  to  the  numberless  traits  of  su- 
periority which  mark  the  productions  of  latter  times.  I  might 
fill  almost  a  volume  with  opinions  to  this  effect,  now  lying  be- 
fore me — not,  however,  the  opinions  of  men  muffled  up  in 
Greek  and   Latin,  who,  generally  speaking,  are  but  poor 


94  SHAPTER  VTI. 

judges  in  such  a  case  ;  but  of  men  whose  attainments  extend- 
ed far  beyond  the  narrow  boundaries  of  scholarship,  and 
spread  over  a  wide  a  field  of  science  and  learning.  But  why 
even  hint  at  such  a  comparison,  when  no  man  would  be  so 
egregious  a  pedant  as  to  place  the  ancients  for  a  moment  in 
competition.  Literature  among  the  moderns  is  a  splendid  ed- 
ifice, in  which  every  species  of  beauty,  elegance,  and  utility, 
conspire  to  delight  the  eye  and  satisfy  the  understanding  ; 
ancient  literature  is  a  rude  cavern,  where,  though  here  and 
there  a  diamond  sparkles,  its  general  aspect  is  dark,  rugged, 
and  unsightly. 

But  enough  on  this  subject;  for  after  all,  whatever  scholars 
may  say  about  the  captivating  graces  of  Greek  and  Roman 
composition,  their  practice,  we  find,  tells  another  story,  and 
their  casual  admissions  confirm  it. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  another  topic  meriting  some  attention. 
Among  the  various  arguments  which  the  admirers  of  antiquity 
carry  in  their  budget,  and  deal  out  on  all  occasions,  one  is, 
that  Latin  affords  a  mighty  help  in  acquiring  living  languages. 
The  advantage  of  some  acquaintance  with  living  modes  of 
speech  being  universally  acknowledged,  new  means  have  been 
drawn  from  this  circumstance  to  strengthen  the  classic  cause. 
We  are  told  again  and  again,  that  Latin  is  worth  learning 
were  it  for  nothing  else — that  it  is  the  best  possible  foundation 
(as  the  phrase  goes)  for  French,  Spanish,  &c. — that  when  the 
former  is  once  mastered,  the  latter  are  a  mere  pastime,  and  so 
on.  But  while  it  is  conceded  that  ancient  tongues  may  facili- 
tate a  superficial  knowledge  of  the  modern,  1  maintain  that  even 
this  is  real  only  in  part.  The  apparent  facility  in  such  cases 
is  principally  the  effect  of  contrast,  for  almost  any  thing  would 
seem  a  relief  after  Greek  and  Latin. 

At  all  events,  the  classical  proficient  will  lose  in  accuracy 
at  least  as  much  as  he  gains  in  despatch.  We  may  remark  in 
the  first  place,  that  though  the  grammar  of  French,  Spanish, 
and  Italian,  have  a  visible  analogy  to  the  Latin,  yet  is  it  doubt- 
ful if  this  very  analogy,  since  there  is  no  precise  accordance, 
does  not  more  naturally  induce  confusion  than  discrimination, 
and  thus  stand  directly  in  the  way  of  accurate  knowledge. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the  rules  of  syntax 
(by  far  the  most  important  part  of  grammar)  are  in  every  lan- 
guage peculiar,  and  quite  insusceptible  of  control  or  even 
modification  from  any  other.  In  this  respect  the  most  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  Latin  will  go  for  nothing.      With  regard,. 


CHAPTER   VII.  95 

gecondly,  to  the  signification  of  words,  in  any  modern  tongue, 
the  utmost  that  Latin  can  do  (for  reasons  already  assigned) 
would  be  merely  to  suggest  hints,  which  though  frequently  ap- 
proximating the  true  sense,  would  seldom  or  never  exactly  co- 
incide ;  and  thus  in  effect  would  often  lead  a  student  wrong, 
for  once  it  put  him  right.  The  light  shed  on  his  path  by  this 
means,  being  wholly  deceptive,  is  something  worse,  perhaps, 
than  total  darkness.  Thus  the  matter  stands  on  the  score  of 
facility.  On  the  score  of  economy,  whether  as  to  labour  or 
expense,  it  stands  no  better — for  the  truth  is,  that  this  founda- 
tion as  it  is  called,  (laid  as  one  might  say  in  Roman  cement) 
would  cost  more,  vastly  more,  than  the  whole  superstructure 
of  modern  languages,  when  raised  on  their  own  natural  and 
appropriate  bases.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that  one  half  the  time 
now  spent  on  the  learned  tongues  at  school  and  college,  which 
on  the  average  may  be  taken  at  six  or  eight  years,  would  be 
sufficient  for  attaining  a  good  degree  of  familiarity  with  all  the 
principal  dialects  now  spoken  abroad — a  truth  that  will  not  be 
called  in  question  by  men  experienced  in  these  matters. 

There  is,  besides,  another  evil  in  the  case  of  some  moment. 
A  student  fresh  from  Latin  has  many  things  to  unlearn — he 
must  completely  shake  off  the  habit  of  pondering  on  classic 
rules  and  classic  analogies  ;  for  until  this  be  effected,  he  might 
toil  ever  so  hard  on  French,  or  Spanish,  to  very  little  purpose. 
The  plain  inference  from  all  these  considerations  is,  that  to  go 
through  the  usual  course  of  classical  studies,  in  hope  of  smooth- 
ing the  difficulties  in  modern  tongues  is  the  most  injudicious 
procedure  imaginable. 

These  observations,  I  am  aware,  will  seem  almost  superflu- 
ous to  those  who  have  given  any  attention  to  the  philosophy 
of  language,  and  are  free  from  scholastic  prepossessions.  The 
fact  is,  the  reputed  usefulness  of  Latin  in  this  way,  is  bottom- 
ed wholly  on  the  two  following  notions — that  grammar  is 
much  the  same  in  all  languages  ;  and  that  the  standard  of 
meaning,  in  words  derived  from  Latin,  must  be  sought  in  the 

{)arent  tongue — fallacies  already  sufficiently  exposed.  Itsure- 
y  is  quite  time  to  purge  our  theories  of  all  such  academic 
whims.  If  there  be  any  one  incontrovertible  proposition 
within  the  whole  compass  of  philology,  it  is  this,  that  neither 
the  proper  collocation  of  terms,  nor  their  genuine  signification, 
in  any  language  whatever,  can  be  in  the  smallest  degree  af- 
fected by  imaginary  or  even  real  analogies  drawn  from  any 
other.     All  modes  of  speech  have  no  doubt,  certain  points  of 


96  CHAPTER   VIII. 

resemblance,  and  to  seek  out  the  less  obvious  is,  I  admit,  a 
very  curious,  and  sometimes  an  amusing  occupation  ;  but  it 
goes  no  farther;  and  whoever  resorts  to  such  means  for  per- 
fecting his  knowledge  of  any  particular  dialect,  not  only  will 
lose  his  labour,  but  in  all  probability  be  led  astray. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ITie  dead  languages  considered  in  reference  to  professional  men. 

In  considering  the  subject  with  reference  to  professional 
men,  a  distinction  may  be  drawn  between  the  dead  languages, 
and  classical  learning.  The  latter  term  comprehends  a  great 
deal  the  most,  and  all  that  it  includes  more  than  the  former, 
of  which  some  particulars  will  presently  be  noticed,  has  never 
been  pretended  to  be  of  any  service  to  either  of  the  profes- 
sions. 

As  to  the  languages,  they  can  be  valuable  no  otherwise 
than  as  a  means  of  acquiring  professional  information.  How 
far  a  lawyer,  a  physician,  or  a  divine,  may  turn  them  to  ac- 
count, can  perhaps  be  accurately  estimated  by  those  only 
who  are  engaged  in  these  vocations  respectively.  Others, 
however,  may  draw  some  conclusions  from  general  princi- 
ples and  general  facts.  That  Greek  and  Latin  are  peculiar- 
ly beneficial  to  this  class  of  men,  is  a  persuasion  of  quite  an- 
cient date  :  coeval  at  least  with  the  revival  of  classical  litera- 
ture ;  perhaps  long  antecedent: — And  in  point  of  fact,  a  com- 
prehensive view  either  of  law  or  medicine  was  hardly  to  be 
attained  in  former  times  without  the  aid  of  Latin ;  for  until 
within  the  last  half  century,  this  was  the  vehicle  of  public 
medical  instruction,  in  most,  if  not  all,  the  colleges  of  Europe; 
and  in  this  language  also,  were  recorded  the  proceedings  of 
English  courts  of  law  and  of  parliament,  down  to  the  time  of 
George  the  second.  On  our  side  the  Atlantic,  circumstances 
were  not  indeed  exactly  the  same;  but  yet  the  habit  of  adopt- 
ing English  opinions  and  practices,  gave  rise  to  a  similar  rou- 
tine of  education  here — add  to  which,  the  custom  that  long 
prevailed  among  writers  in  these  departments,  of  putting  their 
treatises  and  disquisitions  in  a  Latin  dress,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  such  writings  among  us,  concurred  to  render  an  ac- 


CHAPTER   VIII.  97 

quaintance  with  that  tongue  at  least  very  convenient.  How 
the  Greek  language  came  at  first  to  be  tacked  on  as  an  appen- 
dage either  to  law  or  medicine  is  not  easy  to  determine,  nor 
worth  while  to  inquire — it  is  enough  to  know  that  no  value  is 
now  ascribed  to  it  in  this  view  by  any  one. 

With  regard  to  divinity  the  case  is  not  very  different.  The 
preceding  causes,  in  part,  joined  to  several  others  that  might 
be  mentioned,  were  instrumental  in  bringing  into  repute  the 
Roman  tongue  as  a  preparatory  study.  On  the  other  hand, 
Greek  derived  its  consequence  from  being  the  supposed  ori- 
ginal language  of  the  new  testament — and  no  doubt,  if  any 
importance  be  assigned  to  that  branch  of  theology  called  bib- 
lical criticism,  Greek  must  take  a  high  rank.  The  necessity 
of  such  criticism,  however,  either  to  a  just  conception  of  the 
christian  scheme,  to  a  lucid  exposition  of  its  precepts,  or  a 
practical  performance  of  its  duties,  has  never  yet  been  shown, 
and  I  am  persuaded  never  can  be.  So  convinced  of  this  was 
that  classic  veteran  Doctor  Knox  that  he  wrote  his  "  Chris- 
tian Philosophy"  expressly  to  discourage  speculation  on  du- 
bious points,  whether  critical  or  doctrinal,  as  being  alike  un- 
friendly to  genuine  christian  piety  ;  and  in  this  respect,  at 
least,  he  manifests  a  deeper  insight  into  human  nature  than 
those  who  indulge  in  almost  a  licentious  inquisitiveness  about 
passages  of  scripture  that  can  never  be  settled,  and  mysteries 
that  cannot  be  explained.  In  his  essays  likewise,  the  Doctor 
holds  the  same  language — "  Neither  polemical,  controversial, 
doctrinal,  nor  systematical  divinity,  (says  he),  seem  calculat- 
ed to  answer  the  important  ends  of  true  religion.  These  ends 
are  all  friendly  and  benign;  but  I  believe  that  peace,  benev- 
olence, and  purity  of  heart,  are  not  at  all  promoted  in  those 
many  volumes  of  theology  that  owed  their  origin  to  contro- 
versy, and  to  logical  and  metaphysical  refinement ;  these  ori- 
ginate in  pride  and  terminate  in  acrimony."  And  in  another 
place  he  announces  his  settled  opinion  that  "  speculative  and 
polemical  divinity  commonly  diffuse  scepticism  without  con- 
tributing any  thing  to  moral  reformation."*  Now  here  is  a 
writer,  emment  both  as  a  divine  and  a  scholar, — a  professed 
advocate  of  the  languages  too — who  assigns  to  them  no  value 
as  an  instrument  of  biblical  criticism  ;  for  this  seems  a  neces- 
sary inference  from  the  quotations  given.  If  we  turn  next  to 
Doct.  Gregory,  who  stands  precisely  the  same  in  all  respects, 

*  Knox's  Essays,  42  &  168. 
13 


98  CHAPTER   VIII. 

what  are  his  sentiments  ?  We  read  in  his  very  Essay  in  fa- 
vour of  classical  learning  as  follows—"  Without  wishing  to  ap- 
pear a  lover  of  paradox,  I  cannot  dissemble  that  1  do  not  in 
my  own  mind  allow  force  to  the  maxim  which  insists  on  the 
absolute  necessity  of  classical  learning  in  what  are  called  the 
professions.  I  confess  I  think  it  a  most  pernicious  pedantry, 
that  would  involve  in  any  kind  of  mystery  those  sciences 
which  are  most  essential  to  human  happiness.  What,shall  none 
but  Greek  and  Latin  scholars  be  permitted  to  employ  their 
reason  on  the  most  necessary  topics  ?  Admitting  that  there 
ought  to  be  men  in  the  Christian  church  who  should  be  able 
to  read  the  scriptures  in  the  original  languages,  must  every 
plain  country  clergyman  bean  adept  in  languages  which  can- 
not afford  him  the  least  assistance  in  instructing  the  people 
committed  to  his  care  ?"  He  says  likewise  of  such  learning 
as  regards  medical  men — "  In  medicine  I  am  sure  it  has  rather 
impeded  than  advanced  science."  Here  then  is  an  author 
who  recommends  the  languages  as  a  general  study,  yet  makes 
them  out  to  be  worth  nothing  to  the  professions. 

But  further,  relative  to  the  clergy,  I  should  be  glad  to  know 
what  important  new  lights  they  may  yet  hope  to  derive 
from  ancient  tongues  with  reference  to  the  religion  we  all 
profess;  and  the  duties  of  which  it  is  the  appropriate  as  well 
as  the  avowed  business  of  their  lives  to  practise  and  enforce. 
The  received  translation  of  the  Bible  exhibits  every  practical 
precept  of  Christianity  in  so  intelligible  a  shape  that  none  can 
misunderstand  ;  and  if  we  conform  our  lives  and  conduct  to 
those  precepts,  it  can  be  of  little  consequence  what  opinions 
are  embraced  on  disputed  points  of  faith.  It  is  only  on  spe- 
culative points  that  a  diversity  of  sentiment  prevails,  and  these 
being  all  more  or  less  mysterious  to  the  human  mind,  and 
doubtless  designed  to  be,  it  would  impeach  the  wisdom  as 
well  as  benevolence  of  the  Deity  to  suppose  that  any  error 
of  belief  in  such  matters  could  affect  our  future  welfare. 

It  is  not,  however,  barely  in  one  translation  of  the  scrip- 
tures that  the  scheme  of  our  religion  is  displayed  ;  but  in  sev- 
eral ;  all  the  productions  of  as  great  scholars  as  the  world 
has  ever  yet  seen,  and  greater  I  suspect  than  will  again  ap- 
pear. These  versions,  it  is  true,  vary  somewhat  in  phraseol- 
ogy; and  it  could  not  be  otherwise,  since  no  two  men  without 
previous  concert,  would  clothe  the  same  idea  in  exactly  the 
same  words — nor  if  they  did,  would  it  be  construed  alike  by 
different  readers.  Yet  so  slight  are  the  disagreements  actu- 
ally found,  that  a  learned  professor  of  the  orthodox  sect  affirms 


CHAPTER    VIII.  99 

the  very  worst  translation  of  the  Bible  to  contain  every  thing 
essential  to  our  religion — an  opinion  in  which  another  learned 
writer,  of  a  very  different  sect,  is  entirely  disposed  to  coin- 
cide, (see  North  Am.  Rev.  No.  34,  p.  53.)  What  then  is  the 
conclusion?  why  surely  this,  that  whatever  the  dead  lan- 
guages may  yet  have  in  store  for  us,  there  is  at  any  rate  noth- 
ing essential  to  Christianity.  This  moreover  is  the  dictate  of 
common  sense.  In  a  religion  designed,  and  so  admirably 
calculated  as  this  is  for  mankind  at  large,  the  controlling 
principles  cannot  lie  deep ;  and  to  say  that  any  thing  like 
learning  is  necessary  to  discover  them,  is  to  make  it  a  re- 
ligion for  the  learned  only,  without  any  binding  force  on 
others. 

But  is  it  not  extraordinary  that  men  who  so  emphatically 
acknowledge  the  sufficiency  of  our  common  version,  should 
nevertheless  inculcate  the  necessity  of  becoming  proficients, 
not  only  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but  in  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  an 
endless  list  of  cognate  dialects  ?  This  cannot  fail  to  appear, 
to  every  layman  at  least,  a  glaring  inconsistency ;  and  yet 
we  find  not  so  much  as  an  attempt  at  explanation.  How  is 
it  to  be  accounted  for  ?  Is  time  of  so  little  value  to  a  student 
in  divinity  that  he  can  afford  to  spend  some  years  in  prepar- 
ing himself  to  investigate  points  that  are  unessential — points 
too,  which,  if  by  chance  determined  to  his  own  satisfaction, 
might  still  be  viewed  very  differently,  or  at  all  events  remain 
doubtful,  with  other  investigators  of  equal  talents  and  learn- 
ing? On  the  other  hand,  if  the  object  be  to  qualify  students 
for  carrying  on  the  warfare  of  sectarian  controversy  (which 
it  may  be  feared  is  too  often  the  case)  so  far  from  compensat- 
ing for  time  already  lost,  it  would  only  induce  them  to  lose  a 
great  deal  more. 

Nor  is  it  altogether  a  crude  surmise  of  Knox's  that  what 
is  called  biblical  criticism  has  been  actually  prejudicial  to  the 
cause  of  revealed  religion — for  not  only  has  it  detected,  but 
as  the  North  Am.  Rev.  informs  us,  has  carefully  enumerated, 
more  than  a  hundred  thousand  various  readings  in  the  few 
manuscripts  extant  of  the  New  Testament  alone — and  it  is  not 
quite  an  idle  fear,  that  materials  are  now  preparing  by  help 
of  this  same  inquisitive  criticising  spirit,  which  in  the  hands  of 
some  sagacious  and  persevering  infidel  writer,  may  hereafter 
be  converted  into  instruments  of  attack  more  alarming  than 
any  the  world  has  yet  had  occasion  to  deplore. 

A  clergyman's  field  of  study  as  well  as  of  duty,  is  surely 
extensive  enough  without  diving  into  researches  so  intermina- 


J  00  CHAPTER  VIII. 

ble  and  so  unsatisfactory — it  is  also  a  much  nobler  field,  and 
one  in  which  he  may  render  tenfold  the  service  to  his  fellow 
men,  as  regards  either  their  present  or  their  future  welfare. 
"  How  much  more  important  and  useful  to  mankind  (says  the 
eloquent  Ucnnet)  are  the  labours  of  that  pastor,  who,  by  one 
judicious,  impassioned,  and  well  directed  discourse,  appals  the 
sinner,  encourages  the  saint,  guides  the  perplexed,  revives  the 
drooping,  or  condescends  to  cheer  the  bed  of  sickness  with 
divine  consolations." 

Then  again,  as  to  medical  knowledge,  if  the  languages  are 
indispensable,  or  even  to  any  considerable  degree  beneficial, 
how  is  it  that  out  of  thirty  books  established  by  our  medical 
college  for  the  examination  of  students,  not  one  is  in  Latin  or 
Greek,  nor  by  a  Greek  or  Roman  author?  How  is  it  that 
among  seventy  others  particularly  recommended  to  be  read, 
only  one  is  in  Latin,  though  there  are  several  in  French  ?  And 
why  then  is  it  that  French  is  not  made  a  branch  of  preparato- 
ry study  in  this  profession  ?  As  respects  law,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  Latin  be  so  very  useful,  how  does  it  happen  that 
questions,  depending  on  a  critical  knowledge  of  that  lan- 
guage, arise  in  our  courts  scarcely  once  an  age?  Or  lastly, 
in  the  way  of  query,  how  is  it  that  the  languages  are  very 
generally  neglected  in  all  the  professions — so  much  so  as  to 
seem  not  worth  even  the  trouble  of  retaining  ? — Yet  on  look- 
ing around  us,  we  find  this  to  be  the  case.  Scholarship  ap- 
pears to  die  away  as  professional  studies  advance.  Now  if 
the  reader  is  able  to  reconcile  all  this  with  the  assumed  impor- 
tance of  the  languages  in  a  professional  point  of  view,  I  am 
ready  to  do  homage  to  his  superior  sagacity.  The  task  is 
quite  an  over-match  for  me. 

In  a  word,  whatever  explanation  be  given  of  the  alliance  of 
classical  learning  with  professional  knowledge,  it  may  be 
clearly  perceived  to  have  grown  out  of  circumstances  not 
now  existing,  and  to  have  been  perpetuated  by  habits,  and 
modes  of  thinking,  founded  at  least  as  much  on  authority  and 
precedent  as  on  reason.  It  is  very  true,  there  are  a  variety 
of  Latin  names  and  phrases  yet  current  in  law  and  medicine; 
but  they  are  nothing  more  than  terms  of  art,  and  can  be 
learnt  quite  us  well  from  English  books  as  from  Latin — pro- 
bably even  better,  because  such  terms  are  applied  not  in  con- 
formity to  the  usual  practice  of  the  language,  but  in  a  sense 
altogether  technical. 

On  the  whole,  then,  there  would  really  appear  to  be  some 
ground  of  scepticism,  whether  the   advantages  of  classical 


CHAPTER    VIII.  101 

learning,  even  in  the  professions,  are  anywise  commensurate 
with  the  time  and  labour  necessarily  consumed.  For  my 
own  part,  I  am  wholly  unwilling  to  concede  that  the  enlight- 
ened men  who  fill  these  departments  in  our  time,  have  yet  to 
seek  the  principles  of  their  science  in  the  crude  conjectures  of 
heathen  philosophers.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  believe  that 
the  best  talents  of  modern  Europe  have  for  many  generations 
been  assiduously  devoted  to  these  sciences,  and  yet  no  pro- 
gress been  made.  But  if  such  be  really  the  case — if  the 
world  is  yet  in  a  state  of  Egyptian  darkness  on  these  matters  ; 
or  what  is  little  better,  in  Grecian  or  Roman  twilight — if  this 
be  the  fact,  certainly  it  is  quite  time  we  should  know  it;  for 
nothing  is  more  hazardous  than  misplaced  confidence. 

Let  us  admit  then,  (but  only  by  way  of  argument)  that 
Greek  and  Latin  have  some  valid  pretensions  in  this  respect 
—let  us  fall  in  with  the  prevailing  opinion  that  they  are  use- 
ful to  professional  men  though  not  to  others — and  I  am  led  to 
believe  that  the  prevailing  opinion  is  in  fact  already  thus  limit- 
ed ;  because,  after  all,  the  chief  reason  usually  given  by  pa- 
rents for  putting  their  children  on  the  languages,  is,  that  they 
may  be  prepared  for  engaging  in  professional  studies  should 
they  subsequently  incline.  Here  then  we  take  a  position 
which  most  readers,  probably,  would  think  a  fair  one,  even 
though  our  previous  reasoning  were  altogether  set  aside  ;  yet 
from  these  very  premises  a  conclusion  may  be  satisfactorily 
deduced,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  that  the  system  now  followed 
is  inexpedient  and  unphilosophical  ;  and  this  I  proceed  to 
show  : — 

One  monstrous  incongruity  in  the  system,  on  this  hypothe- 
sis, is  visible  at  the  first  glance ;  for  why  should  we  include  in 
a  general  scheme  of  instruction  what  is  available  only  in  cer- 
tain occupations  ?  Why  confine  a  dozen  boys  for  almost  a 
dozen  years  of  their  lives  to  Greek  and  Latin,  in  order  that 
two  or  three  may  become  lawyers,  physicians,  or  divines  ?  It 
is  much  the  same  as  to  till  and  plant  a  field  of  twelve  acres, 
with  the  design  of  reaping  but  two  or  three.  Yet  such  is  our 
practice  ;  and  it  is  of  so  long  standing,  that  its  absurdity  is 
overlooked — thus  exemplifying  accurately  a  remark  of  Karnes, 
that  "  custom  and  familiarity  hide  the  defects  of  established 
plans."  If  the  principle  on  which  we  have  so  long  proceeded 
were  presented  to  us  in  a  new  shape,  its  fallacy  would  be  too 
obvious  to  escape  detection.  If  for  instance,  any  one  should 
recommend  that  our  children  be  employed  from  the  age  of 
eight  to  fourteen  in  acquiring  the  rudiments  of  each  and  every 


102  CH AFTER   VIII. 

branch  of  business,  mechanical,  agricultural,  mercantile,  and 
professional,  on  the  ground  that  their  vocation  being  as  yet 
uncertain,  they  should  be  prepared  for  every  thing,  the  folly 
of  the  scheme  would  be  apparent.  Every  body  would  see 
that  nine-tenths  of  what  is  thus  learnt  would  be  nearly  use- 
less. 

The  application  of  these  remarks  is  perhaps  already  an- 
ticipated, which  alone  would  be  some  evidence  of  their  ration- 
ality. If  the  dead  languages  have  only  a  special  and  not  a 
general  utility,  common  sense  requires  that  they  be  taken  out 
of  the  ordinary  routine  of  education,  and  made  a  branch  of 
professional  studies — not  to  be  undertaken  till  the  profession 
be  determined.  On  the  other  hand,  the  general  system  of 
early  instruction,  in  which  all  are  to  participate,  should  in- 
clude those  parts  of  knowledge  only  (numerous  enough  and 
extensive  enough  most  certainly)  of  use  in  every  walk  of  life, 
and  best  adapted  to  invigorate  and  expand  the  mental  facul- 
ties. Such  is  the  course  plainly  marked  out  by  reason  ;  and 
by  this  mode  of  proceeding  a  saving  would  evidently  be 
made,  at  the  very  outset,  of  an  enormous  aggregate  of  time  and 
labour  now  wasted  by  those  to  whom  Greek  and  Latin  are 
superfluous. 

But  this  is  by  no  means  the  only  advantage  that  might  ac- 
crue. The  very  students  who  have  professional  objects  in 
view,  would  themselves  be  essentially  benefitted  ;  their  field 
of  study  would  be  narrowed  to  less  than  one  half.  The  value 
of  learning,  like  every  thing  else,  can  only  be  measured  by 
the  test  of  utility  ;  which,  considered  with  reference  to  partic- 
ular occupations,  (as  assumed  by  our  hypothesis,)  becomes 
professional  utility.  Hence,  in  law7  or  medicine,  the  Greek  lan- 
guage may  be  dispensed  with  ;  and  in  divinity,  there  is  no 
good  reason  for  retaining  the  Latin,  as  that  was  not  the  origin- 
al language  of  any  part  of  the  Scriptures.  But  here  perhaps, 
we  shall  be  stopped  by  the  pretence  that  Latin  is  necessary 
to  understand  the  Greek.  If  so,  we  might  call  in  aid  the 
opinion  of  a  writer,  a  leader  in  the  classic  host,  who  has  ar- 
gued at  some  length  directly  to  the  contrary — that  Greek  is  a 
prerequisite  to  Latin,  and  ought  to  be  studied  first. — (See  N. 
A.  Rev.  vol.  1 1th.  p.  209.)  Both  doctrines  however  are  alike 
scholastic  and  unphilosophical — no  one  language  is  dependent 
on  another.  Thus  it  would  seem  that  in  preparing  for  either 
profession  one  or  the  other  language  may  as  well  as  not  be 
omitted  ;  and  by  this  circumstance  alone  the  student's  labour 


CHAPTER    VIII.  103 

would  be  abridged  one  half.     Is  not  this  a  saving  of  some  im- 
portance ? 

Furthermore,  keeping  utility  always  in  mind,  the  whole 
time  now  spent  in  attempting  to  discover  and  relish  the  beau- 
ties, the  elegances,  and  the  harmony  of  language,  might  like- 
wise be  saved  :  for  whatever  value  scholars  may  attach  to 
these  things,  they  are  in  a  great  measure  imaginary — at  all 
events,  entirely  useless  to  the  professions.  Edgeworth  very 
pertinently  asks,  "  If  lawyers  could  make  Latin  and  Greek 
verses  with  all  the  facility  of  our  most  renowned  scholars,  of 
what  use  would  it  be  to  them  on  the  bench  ?" — and  we  might 
ask  the  same  of  physicians  or  clergymen.  So  also  Schlegel 
remarks  in  the  same  spirit,  "  The  matter  of  chief  importance 
in  all  civilization  and  all  literature,  is  not  the  dead  treasures 
we  possess,  but  the  living  uses  to  which  we  can  apply  them." 
With  the  "  puerilities  of  obsolete  mythology,"  (as  Johnson 
thought  them)  or  the  still  greater  puerilities  of  obsolete  versi- 
fication, as  visionary  too  as  it  is  obsolete  ;  neither  a  physician, 
a  lawyer,  nor  a  divine,  can  have  any  thing  to  do.  It  is  a  spe- 
cies of  elegant  trifling,  (as  Gregory  calls  it)  condemned  even 
by  many  classical  men,  as  unworthy  the  attention  of  scholars 
— much  less  should  it  be  permitted  to  engross  the  time  of 
those  whose  duties  require  a  broad  scope  of  knowledge,  dis- 
tinct from  scholarship,  and  quite  above  it.  Here  then,  we  dis- 
card another  ponderous  load  of  difficulties  by  which  every 
learner  is  embarrassed.  Now  when  all  this  is  fairly  taken 
into  consideration,  it  will  be  clearly  perceived  that  a  vast 
amount  of  unprofitable  labour  may  be  saved  to  the  profession- 
al student,  yet  nothing  of  consequence  be  neglected. 

The  good  effects,  however,  of  the  change  proposed,  I  con- 
ceive do  not  stop  here.  The  very  circumstance  of  entering 
on  the  languages  at  a  maturer  age,  instead  of  being  as  some 
might  think,  an  objection,  is  in  reality  a  recommendation.  A 
young  man  of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  having  decided  on  a  pro- 
fession, and  being  fully  sensible  of  the  importance  of  his 
studies  to  his  future  success  in  life,  would  engage  in  them  with 
ardour — he  would  master  every  thing  as  he  goes  along  ;  and 
thus  his  acquisitions,  while  they  are  facilitated,  would  also  be 
more  substantial.  Whatever  teachers  may  say,  the  dead  lan- 
guages are  of  all  studies  the  least  adapted  to  youthful  minds. 
They  are  proverbially  dry  and  irksome;  the  reason  of  which 
is  that  children  are  unable  to  perceive  either  meaning  or  use 
in  them.  This  branch  of  learning  seems  therefore  to  require 
in  a  special  manner  the  incitement  of  some  interesting  object 


104  CHAPTER    VIII. 

in  prospect,  on  which  it  has  a  bearing  ;  and  this  therefore  is 
the  very  branch  that  should  be  postponed  until  such  a  stimu- 
lus can  be  felt. 

.  There  is  moreover  another  improvement  of  which  the  case 
appears  susceptible  in  a  professional  point  of  view.  Why 
may  not  a  student,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  learning  the  lan- 
guage, accumulate  information  applicable  to  his  destined  oc- 
cupation ?  The  ancient  classics,  it  is  true,  will  supply  nothing 
of  the  kind.  But  suppose  professional  books  were  taken  as 
text  books ;  would  not  something  more  be  learnt  than  the 
mere  language  ?  May  not  rules,  facts,  and  reasonings  of  a 
professional  nature  be  stored  up  in  the  memory  just  as  well 
as  scraps,  passages,  and  even  whole  books  from  ancient  poets 
and  orators  ?  How  much  may  be  done  in  this  way,  it  is  not 
for  me  to  decide  ;  but  in  branches  of  knowledge  depending  so 
materially  on  facts  and  precepts,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  a 
great  deal  may  be  done.  Nor  will  any  one  pretend  that 
Latin  cannot  be  as  well  learnt  in  treatises  on  law  and  medicine 
as  in  Cicero  or  Virgil.  We  may  be  told  indeed,  that  the  lan- 
guage of  such  books  is  not  the  same  either  in  style  or  diction 
— that  it  is  not  classical.  I  answer,  so  much  the  better — it  is 
the  very  style,  and  the  very  diction  a  professional  man  would 
stand  in  need  of — a  style  too,  which  even  now  he  is  obliged 
sooner  or  later  to  become  familiar  with,  if  by  chance  he  has 
acquired  the  true  classical  taste  in  the  first  instance.  I  again 
repeat,  that  with  students  of  this  description  scholarship  is  not 
the  aim  ;  and  least  of  all,  that  sort  of  ornamental  scholarship, 
which  deals  only  in  matters  of  style  and  taste.  For  these 
reasons  Latin  books  of  modern  date  would  seem  in  every  way 
preferable  to  the  classics.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark 
that  the  same  reasons  will  apply  to  the  Greek  in  the  study  of 
divinity. 

There  is  certainly  nothing  visionary  in  the  persuasion  that 
some  such  plan  as  this  would  be  a  decided  improvement  in 
professional  education,  since  it  is  founded  on  a  just  distinction 
between  that  sort  of  acquaintance  with  the  languages,  which 
is  really  useful  in  the  professions,  and  the  more  discursive 
though  less  accurate  knowledge  of  them  comprised  in  what  is 
termed  scholarship.  Some  people,  to  be  sure,  would  have  the 
world  believe  that  no  one,  without  a  diploma  in  his  pocket, 
should  be  listened  to  on  these  subjects  ;  but  the  reader  will 
bear  in  mind  that  most  of  the  considerations  here  submitted 
move  on  general  principles,  independent  either  of  classical  or 
professional  experience  ;  and  he  will  take  the  liberty  there- 


CHAPTER   IX.  105 

fore  to  judge  for  himself,  whether  they  are  sound  or  futile. 
For  myself,  I  am  firmly  convinced  that  a  student  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  after  two  years  application  to  the  lan- 
guages in  the  way  proposed,  would  reap  advantages  seldom 
realized  by  ten  years  toil  in  the  usual  way ;  and  would  be  in- 
comparably better  fitted  for  following  up  his  studies  in  the 
office  either  of  a  lawyer,  a  physician,  or  a  divine. 

1  have  now  stated  the  grounds  of  my  belief,  that  even  if  the 
languages  are  absolutely  necessary  to  professional  men,  yet 
the  existing  routine  of  study  is  not  the  best,  and  that  a  better 
may  be  devised.  Innovations,  to  be  sure,  are  always  liable 
to  objections — they  often  wound  the  consciences  of  some,  and 
generally  touch  the  pockets  of  others  ;  but  improvement  is 
seldom  to  be  attained  at  a  cheaper  rate  ;  and  he  must  be  little 
conversant  with  the  history  of  knowledge  who  has  yet  to 
learn,  that  a  reverence  for  antiquity  and  established  usage  has 
perpetuated  a  thousand  errors  where  innovation  has  created 
one. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Some  account  of  ancient  Prosody,  so  called  ;  or  the  received  theo* 
ry  of  Greek  and  Latin  versification — its  follies,  deficiencies, 
and  incongruities. 

The  end  proposed,  in  devoting  a  few  pages  to  this  subject, 
is  not  to  show  what  ancient  poetry  was,  for  of  this  no  idea 
can  be  formed,  as  the  reader  presently  will  be  quite  satisfied 
— nor  is  it  to  explain  the  nature  of  that  unspeakable  harmony 
which  scholars  pretend  they  find,  perhaps  think  they  find,  in 
ancient  verse ;  for  that  would  be  explaining  a  nonentity. 
The  object  is  to  let  parents  see  how  foolishly  and  unprofitably 
their  children  are  employed,  for  no  inconsiderable  portion  of 
their  time  at  Latin  schools,  in  learning  what  moderns  have 
chosen  to  consider  the  true  theory  of  ancient  versificat  ion. 

"  What  voice  has  been  so  celebrated  (says  a  Frenchwriter) 

as  that  of  the  syren  ;  what  song  so  much   extolled  as  that  of 

the  swan  ;"   yet  it  was  well  known,  he  goes  on  to  remark, 

even  in  times  of  comparative   ignorance,  that  swans  did  not 

14 


106  CUAPTEll    IX, 

sing  ;  and  Pliny  himself  denounced  it  as  a  vulgar  prejudice — 
"  But  the  swan  (he  continues)  is  a  fine  bird — its  plumage  a 
delightful  emblem  of  purity  and  innocence;  and  there  are  er- 
rors so  pleasing  and  so  seductive  that  we  willingly  overlook 
the  deception."  Just  so  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  with  those  noted 
songsters  Homer  and  Virgil;  and  the  time,  1  believe,  will 
come,  in  season  possibly  to  be  witnessed  by  some  of  us,  when 
the  enchanting  music  of  their  verse  will  be  acknowledged  a 
mere  illusion,  and  the  present  age  be  laughed  at  for  its  credu- 
lity. Indeed  there  appear  to  have  been  at  all  times  not  a  few 
among  the  higher  order  of  scholars,  who  have  been  conscious 
of  some  deception  in  this  particular.  This  class,  however, 
have  always  supported  a  double  creed,  an  esoteric  and  an 
exoteric — one  for  the  initiated,  the  oiher  for  the  vulgar.  In 
their  conversation,  and  their  writings  designed  for  general 
readers,  they  have  held  up  the  idea  that  nothing  is  so  capti- 
vating, or  so  inspiring,  as  the  melody  of  ancient  verse;  while 
in  disquisitions  addressed  to  scholars  themselves,  controversy 
after  controversy  has  been  carried  on,  not  exactly  whether 
ancient  poetry  be  or  be  not  harmonious  (for  classic  orthodoxy 
would  reject  the  statement  in  this  form);  but  what  comes  to 
the  same  thing,  whether  its  harmony  may  be  recognized  by 
modern  ears,  and  of  what  elements  it  is  or  was  composed. 

It  should  here  be  remarked,  that  the  word  poetry,  and  its 
analagous  term  poem,  having  been  plunged  deep  into  the  abyss 
of  etymology,  endless  disputes  have  arisen  on  their  meaning, 
and  as  usual,  without  coming  to  any  decision.  With  this 
however  we  have  fortunately  no  concern.  I  take  it  for  grant- 
ed that  the  pleasing  effect  called  harmony  or  melody,  whe- 
ther of  verse  or  prose,  results  in  every  language,  from  the 
true  vernacular  pronunciation  of  words,  selected  and  arrang- 
ed in  a  certain  order  and  with  a  view  to  produce  that  effect — 
that  when  thus  arranged  and  thus  pronounced,  they  do  pro- 
duce it — that  when  either  the  arrangement  is  in  any  consid- 
erable degree  different,  or  when  the  pronunciation  is  so,  no 
pleasing  effect  can  follow — no  harmony  can  be  perceived.  This 
is  undeniably  the  case  in  English,  and  we  have  every  reason 
to  think  from  the  very  nature  of  things  that  it  holds  true  in 
every  other  language,  ancient  or  modern — for  is  it  not  repug- 
nant to  reason  to  suppose  that  Homer  and  Virgil  arranged 
their  verse  on  the  basis  of  their  vernacular  pronunciation,  and 
yet  that  harmony  will  result  from  it,  however  pronounced — how- 
ever read?  What  then  would  be  the  use  of  arrangement  ? 
Can  you  imagine  a  piece  of  music  that  may  be  played  any 


CHAPTER    IX.  107 

ftow,  and  yet  be  melodious  ?  Every  intelligent  reader  must 
therefore  perceive  that  when  Greek  and  Latin  ceased  to  be 
living  languages,  and  their  true  pronunciation  became  lost,  as 
it  now  confessedly  is,  every  thing  like  harmony  must  have  ex- 
pired at  the  same  time — leaving  its  very  nature  to  be  supplied 
by  hypothesis,  and  its  effect  by  imagination. 

Nevertheless  harmony  is  one  of  those  ideal  excellences  in 
ancient  tongues,  on  which  classic  enthusiasts  have  taken  par- 
ticular delight  in  dwelling ;  and  thus  a  belief  has  obtained 
among  the  unlearned  that  it  has  a  real  existence.  It  is  there- 
fore desirable  to  have  it  understood,  if  possible,  what  ancient 
poetry  really  is,  or  at  least  what  it  is  represented  to  be ;  and  in 
attempting  an  explanation,  I  shall  endeavour  as  far  as  practi- 
cable to  be  perspicuous,  even  at  the  risk  of  some  prolixity. 
Yet  such  is  the  chaos  of  absurdity  in  which  the  subject  is  im- 
mersed, there  is  little  chance  of  complete  success. 

Among  the  variety  of  topics  about  which  critics  and  philol- 
ogists in  all  ages  have  busied  themselves,  few  have  engaged 
more  attention,  and  none  proved  more  refractory,  than  that 
of  versification,  and  the  sources  of  its  harmony.  Not  indeed 
that  the  nature  and  elements  of  metrical  composition,  as  re- 
gards any  particular  language,  are  really  inscrutable  to  those 
who  are  familiar  with  its  genuine  pronunciation  ;  for  it  is  un- 
questionably true,  in  respect  of  our  own,  that  in  spite  of  all 
the  contradiction,  ambiguity,  and  even  positive  nonsense,  that 
has  been  written  on  the  subject  by  Dr.  Foster,  with  many 
others  before  and  since,  its  pleasing  effect  is  at  least  in  a  suf- 
ficient degree  accounted  for.*  This  however  is  comparative- 
ly a  recent  thing.  Had  the  matter  originally  been  investigat- 
ed without  reference  to  ancient  theories,  the  true  sources  of 
English  metre  would  have  been  more  generally  and  much 
sooner  understood.  The  effect  of  classic  authority  has  always 
been  to  perplex  every  question  on  which  it  was  brought  to 
bear ;  and  our  writers  having  unfortunately  set  out  on  this 
inquiry,  as  on  numberless  others,  with  the  erroneous  impres- 
sion that  ancient  speculations  would  abridge  their  labour, 
they  have  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  scholarship  what  might  ea- 
sily have  been  resolved  by  appealing  to  their  own  senses. 
Borrowing,  as  they  did,  from  Latin  prosody,  a  long  catalogue 
of  rules  and  phrases,  they  have  talked   incessantly,  though 


*  To  show  how  completely  Foster's  mind  was  dimmed  by  his  learning-,  i  s 
enough  to  mention  that  he  holds  English  verse  to  have  its  essence  in  length  of 
syllables. 


108  CHAPTER    IX. 

never  consistently,  about  acute  and  grave  accents,  about  long 
and  short  syllables,  about  dactyles,  spondees,  iambics,  &c. — 
when  in  truth  English  verse  is  an  utter  stranger  to  them  all, 
and  owes  its  melody  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  to  a  slated  recurrence 
of  syllabic  emphasis.  The  matter  is  now  pretty  well  settled, 
through  the  aid  of  Sheridan  and  others,  who  rejected  ancient 
doctrines  ;  and  it  might  have  been  settled  centuries  ago,  had 
not  scholarship  unluckily  interfered. 

With  respect  however  to  Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  the  case 
is  by  no  means  the  same.  This  inquiry  has  always  been, 
among  moderns,  a  different  one  in  its  very  nature,  depending 
on  different  means  of  solution  ;  and  it  has  been  attended  with 
far  less  success,  or  rather  with  no  success  at  all.  As  the  ear 
cannot  assist  in  judging  of  what  is  called  metre,  or  rhythmusin 
a  dead  language,  there  is  no  appeal  but  to  original  authors  in 
that  language,  or  to  arguments  founded  on  general  principles  ; 
and  as  to  Greek  and  Latin,  the  case  seems  at  all  times  to  have 
been  nearly  hopeless.  If  indeed,  there  had  been  philosophy 
enough  in  Rome  or  Athens  to  deduce  from  the  subtle  elements 
of  speech,  the  true  principles  of  their  metrical  compositions  ; 
or  even  had  their  writers  refrained  from  attempting  to  explain 
what  in  reality  they  did  not  comprehend  ;  we  should  in  either 
case  have  been  in  a  fitter  state  to  form  a  judgment  of  their 
versification — we  should  have  understood  it  better,  and  es- 
teemed it  less. 

But  as  it  happens,  the  works  that  have  come  down  to  us 
are  so  wofully  ambiguous  and  discordant  on  this  head,  that 
the  elements,  or  as  Walker  calls  them,  the  efficients  of  Greek 
and  Latin  versification,  have  never  been  known  to  moderns. 
In  the  absence  therefore  of  all  accurate  knowledge,  recourse 
has  been  had  to  hypothesis  ;  and  a  theory  has  been  formed 
and  taught,  for  1  know  not  how  many  centuries,  as  embracing 
the  true  principles  of  classic  poetry.  Yet  it  is  well  known 
that  hundreds  of  scholars,  of  deserved  celebrity  for  talents 
and  learning,  have  dissented  from  this  theory,  and  denounced 
it  as  spurious — from  which  circumstance,  and  from  its  own  in- 
herent absurdities,  it  would  doubtless  have  been  long  since  ex- 
ploded, but  for  its  intimate  connexion  with  the  whole  classic 
system.  And  this  is  the  more  probable  since  the  theory  goes 
no  further,  even  in  pretension,  than  to  explain  what  classic 
poetry  zvas,  without  accounting  in  the  smallest  degree  for  the 
harmony  which  moderns  are  said  to  realize  in  that  sort  of 
reading. 


CHAPTER    IX.  109 

The  scheme  of  ancient  prosody  now  current  in  our  schools 
is  built  on  the  hypothesis  just  alluded  to  ;  and  ancient  metre, 
according  to  this  scheme,  is  resolved  entirely  into  length  of 
syllables,  or  what  is  technically  called  quantity.  It  consists,  it 
is  said,  of  a  certain  arrangement,  in  some  degree  uniform,  of 
long  and  short  syllables — one  of  the  former  being  equal  to 
two  of  the  latter,  that  is  to  say,  requiring  double  the  time  in 
its  pronunciation.  Not  that  this  comparative  time  is  ever  re- 
garded, or  could  be,  by  moderns,  but  is  supposed  to  have  been 
by  the  ancients.  These  two  species  of  syllables  variously 
combined,  taken  two,  three,  or  four  together,  form  what  the 
ancients  called  feet — each  combination  being  furnished  with 
a  specific  name,  such  as  dactyle,  spondee,  and  so  on,  to  the 
number  of  about  30,  as  Lord  Karnes  says,  or  perhaps  even  1 24, 
as  Dr.  Rees  says.*  These  feet  again,  mixed  and  arranged  in 
certain  ways,  constituted  the  various  kinds  of  verse  used,  or 
at  least  named,  by  the  ancients,  such  as  Hexameter,  Anapes- 
tic,  Saphic,  and  a  multitude  of  others. 

To  make  out  so  splendid  a  variety  of  verse,  with  syllables 
appropriately  arranged  to  accord  with  the  given  characteris- 
tics of  each  distinct  species  of  metre,  might  seem  an  impossi- 
bility ;  but  the  means  of  accommodation  were  correspondent, 
and  though  arbitrary  at  first,  were  at  length  allowed,  it  is  said, 
by  custom.  Numberless  syllables,  for  instance  were  laid 
down  as  common,  to  be  used  either  for  long  or  short,  as  occa- 
sion required.  Many  others,  short  by  nature,  that  is  to  say, 
in  prose,  were  accounted  (as  Latin  grammarians  say)  long  in 
verse.  Besides  this,  there  were  other  arbitrary  changes, 
(called  by  moderns  figures  in  scanning,)  that  words  underwent 
to  suit  the  purposes  of  verse  ;  by  aid  of  which,  sometimes  a 
syllable  is  cut  off,  or  considered  as  null — at  other  times,  one 
syllable  is  expanded  into  two,  or  two  contracted  to  one  ;  long 
are  made  short,  and  short  are  made  long.  In  addition  to 
these  means,  there  are  what  is  called  figures  of  diction,  by 
help  of  which  a  line  may  be  enlarged  or  curtailed,  either  in 
fact  or  by  supposition.  And  lastly,  when  all  this  will  not  suf- 
fice to  resolve  the  verse  and  give  it  a  name,  Latin  grammars 
permit  us  in  some  cases  to  cut  the  line  in  two,  and  divide  its 
feet  differently — which  by  the  way  is  stated  to  be  sometimes 
a  positive  improvement. 

Now  with  every  thing  so  loose  and  arbitrary  as  this  (and 
this  is  precisely  what  our  grammars  teach)  those  tasteful  peo- 

*  See  the  end  of  the  Chapter  for  references  and  quotations. 


110  CHAPTER   IX. 

pie,  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  could  never  have  been  in  want 
of  verse,  for  they  might  make  it  out  of  any  passage  from  Aris- 
totle or  Cicero.  And  moderns  very  likely  may  do  the  same, 
provided  a  conformity  to  prosodial  rules  be  the  only  test. 
Walker  indeed  quotes  a  learned  critic,  who  says,  that  with 
such  unbounded  latitude,  he  can  reduce  to  verse  of  the  true 
ancient  measure,  any  passage  from  Robinson  Crusoe,  and  he 
actually  gives  a  specimen.  We  find  it  stated  likewise,  in  sev- 
eral grammars,  (Buttman's  Greek  for  instance)  besides  many 
other  authorities,  that  the  division  of  a  verse  into  feet  is  in  a 
great  measure  arbitrary  ;  and  it  would  be,  I  believe,  no  more 
than  the  truth  to  say  wholly  arbitrary.  But  now  for  one  mo- 
ment, if  Homer's  lines  (to  take  a  case)  may  in  a  great  measure 
be  divided  into  five  feet,  or  into  seven  feet,  what  then  becomes 
of  Hexameter  verse,  which  by  rule  ought  to  have  six  feet  ? — 
How  indeed  can  Hexameter  be  distinguished  from  any  other? 
— We  may  divide  prose  as  we  please,  but  who  ever  heard  that 
verse,  properly  so  called,  can  be  treated  in  this  way  ?  Is  not 
this  almost  an  admission  that  ancient  verse  is  such  only  in 
name  ? — But  to  return  to  the  scheme. 

With  resources  so  unlimited  as  before  mentioned,  of  accom- 
modating syllables  to  their  destined  station  in  verse,  one  would 
hardly  have  thought  it  necessary  to  lay  down  rules  for  deter- 
mining what  are  to  be  called  long,  or  what  are  to  be  called 
short,  since  all  this  seems  to  be  merged  in  a  more  general 
rule,  which  is  to  place  them  as  you  please,  and  call  it  verse. 
Latin  grammarians  nevertheless  have  furnished  precepts  in 
this  way  to  the  number  of  about  twenty  ;  though  by  no  means 
providing  for  all  the  syllables  of  the  language,  (a  writer  in 
Rees  says  not  one  half)  all  the  rest  being  left  to  be  ascertained 
from  the  use  of  the  poets — a  method  sufficiently  operose,  one 
would  think,  considering  the  many  thousands  thus  remaining 
incog.  To  supply  this  unaccountable  and  gloomy  deficiency, 
the  writer  in  Rees,  just  mentioned,  takes  great  credit  for  hav- 
ing deduced,  after  four  consecutive  analyses  of  the  language 
(no  trifling  affair)  157  additioyxal  rules,  embracing  as  he  says 
every  thing  before  undetermined — so  that  hereafter  if  there 
be  any  lack  of  skill  in  this  favourite  branch  of  ornamental 
scholarship,  it  cannot  be  for  lack  of  precept.  The  reader,  if 
he  wishes,  may  see  the  labours  of  this  new  investigator  spread 
over  the  last  twenty  pages,  under  the  head  of  Quantity  in 
Rees'  Ency.  The  task  he  offers,  is  to  be  sure,  rather  repul- 
sive ;  but  yet,  unquestionably  easier  than  to  learn  the 
syllabic   length  of    half  the  language  merely  by  practice ; 


CHAPTER    IX.  Ill 

and  most  certainly,  by  one  means  or  another,  the  whole  must 
be  learnt  ere  a  student  can  distinguish  verse  from  prose,  unless 
it  be  by  its  arrangement  in  lines. 

Against  a  theory  thus  fanciful,  several  objections  occur, 
arising  from  general  principles.  The  very  assumption  on 
which  it  is  built,  that  syllables  were  only  of  two  kinds,  or  re- 
ducible to  two,  is  so  entirely  unphilosophical  as  to  shake  the 
faith  of  almost  every  writer  who  has  tried  his  patience  on  this 
intractable  subject — perhaps  I  might  say  every  one.  All  have 
admitted,  even  the  ancients  themselves,  that  some  exercise  of 
imagination  was  necessary  to  meet  the  case.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  living  languages  syllables  are  various,  and  so  nice  their 
gradation,  that  any  classification,  depending  on  length  of 
sound,  would  be  visionary.  Then  again,  the  language  of 
every  people  having  been  formed  long  ere  critics  or  poets  ex- 
isted, and  by  illiterate  men,  it  is  little  short  of  absurdity  to  be- 
lieve that  syllables,  as  naturally  and  usually  pronounced, 
could  with  any  more  propriety  be  divided  into  two  kinds  than 
into  three,  four  or  five.  And  besides,  how  did  it  happen  that 
Latin,  the  language  of  a  nation  populous  and  powerful,  long 
before  the  conquest  of  Greece  (and  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose its  chief  elements  were  ever  changed)  possessed  natural- 
ly, in  length  of  syllables,  so  accurate  a  conformity  to  Greek 
as  this  theory  supposes,  while  no  such  quality  has  been  dis- 
covered in  any  other  tongue  at  any  period  of  the  world.  But 
apart  from  all  this,  there  is  a  strong  presumption,  as  Mr.  Odell 
has  shown,  that  mere  length  of  syllables  is,  from  its  very  na- 
ture, incapable  of  marking  the  rythmus  in  any  language  what- 
ever. 

Such  however  is  the  received  scheme  of  prosody — the 
scheme  sanctioned  by  all  our  academic  institutions,  and  satis- 
factory it  would  seem  to  the  majority  of  scholars.  If  the 
reader  has  never  dipped  into  the  mystery  before  (for  notwith- 
standing this  theory  and  all  others,  the  whole  is  still  a  myste- 
ry) he  may  satisfy  himself  by  taking  up  any  Latin  grammar, 
that  the  account  here  given  is  a  fair  one.  Founded  as  the 
plan  is,  simply  on  syllabic  quantity,  it  is  yet  so  amazingly 
complex,  visionary,  artificial,  and  arbitrary,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  implies  such  numerous  deviations  from  the  ordinary 
prose  pronunciation  of  the  language,  even  as  spoken  by  the 
ancients  themselves,  that  it  bears  on  its  very  front  every  token 
of  fallacy.  "  What  must  be  our  astonishment,  (says  Walker) 
at  this  very  different  sound  of  words,  arising  merely  from  a 
different  collocation,"    to  which  he  adds  in  another   place. 


il2  CUAPTEU    IX. 

"  but  if  this  system  of  quantity  among  the  ancients  seem 
strange  and  unaccountable,  our  wonder  will  not  diminish  when 
we  inquire  into  the  nature  of  their  accents." 

But  here  something  must  be  said  on  accent,  which  though 
forming  no  part  of  the  received  theory  of  versification,  is  in- 
cluded under  the  head  of  prosody,  in  all  our  grammars.  That 
accent  should  not  form  a  part  of  the  theory,  is  of  itself  a  very 
suspicious  circumstance,  for  of  so  peculiar  a  nature  was  it  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  and  so  controlling  an  element  of  pronuncia- 
tion, that  it  must  necessarily  have  been  a  principal  source  of 
whatever  harmony  there  was  either  in  prose  or  verse.  The 
doctrine  of  accents  as  laid  down  in  the  books,  is  simply  this — 
there  were  by  name  three  kinds ;  the  acute,  the  grave,  and  the 
circumflex.  In  every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  one  of 
its  syllables,  and  always  the  same, was  pronounced  in  a  higher 
tone  of  voice,  that  is  to  say,  on  a  higher  key  than  the  rest, 
and  this  tone  was  called  the  acute  accent.  The  grave  was 
nothing  more  than  the  absence  of  the  acute  ;  or  if  any  thing 
more,  it  is  not  known  what.  As  to  the  circumflex,  it  is  men- 
tioned in  so  obscure  a  way  by  the  ancients,  that  moderns  have 
scarcely  ventured  to  conjecture  its  nature.  Bishop  Horsley, 
however,  quotes  an  author  who  says  it  was  a  suffocation  of 
voice  ;  and  if  so,  there  is  certainly  some  policy  in  leaving  out 
of  view  at  least  the  circumflex,  in  accounting  for  ancient  har- 
mony. But  the  acute  was  so  eminently  the  leading  accent,  as 
often  to  be  called  simply  the  accent — and  of  so  much  conse- 
quence was  it.  that  all  classic  writers  speak  of  it  as  the  most 
conspicuous  and  characteristic  feature  in  their  speech.  In- 
deed, it  is  manifest  that  to  sound  one  particular  syllable  in 
each  word  higher  than  the  rest,  and  to  do  this  uniformly,  must 
be  so  striking  to  the  ear,  that  every  thing  like  metre  or  rhyth- 
mus  would  essentially  depend  on  the  disposition  of  such  an  ac- 
cent. The  reader  therefore  may  easily  perceive  that  assuming 
this  to  be  the  nature  of  ancient  accent, as  our  grammars  do,  and 
yet  omitting  it  in  the  theory  of  metrical  composition,  is  a  mon- 
strous discrepancy.  Not  that  I  believe  myself  that  such  an 
accent  ever  existed,  though  all  the  big  scholars  have  insisted 
upon  it.  Speech  thus  modulated  would  have  been  a  mere 
chaunt,  so  monotonous  as  to  be  absolutely  wearisome,  and  so 
peculiar,  that,  as  Odell  remarks,  it  could  never  have  been 
lost — yet  among  no  modern  people,  not  even  modern  Greeks, 
is  there  any  such  thing — Does  it  not,  moreover,  surpass  all 
belief,  that  the  Romans  should  have  had  just  the  same  accents 


CHAPTER    IX.  113 

as  the  Greeks,  and  so  peculiar  too  ? — But  to  return  to  the 
theory. 

That  an  hypothesis  so  encumbered  with  difficulties,  should 
have  found  opponents,  is  far  less  surprising  than  that  it  should 
have  found  believers — and  for  my  own  part,  I  am  not  convin- 
ced it  has  now,  or  ever  has  had,  any  believers  of  adult  age. 
Its  avowed  dissenters,  we  know,  have  been   very  numerous  ; 
and  a  variety  of  substitutes  have  been  offered,  in    hope  of 
arriving  at  something  more  rational  and  consistent — but  all  in 
vain — perfectly  in  vain,  as  to  accounting  for  any  harmony 
perceptible   to   moderns,  or  even  to  the   ancients.      For  as 
Walker  says,  "  Let  us  view  the  Greek  and  Latin  pronuncia- 
tion on  which  side  we  will,  we  must,  to  be  consistent  with  their 
own  rules,  feel  them  to  be  extremely  monotonous,"  and  in 
this  opinion,  he  adds,  he  is  fully  supported,  "  notwithstanding 
all  the  fine  things  which  the  ancients,  and  even  many  moderns 
say,  of  the  variety  and  harmony  of  those  languages."     In 
fact,  it  would  be  impossible  to  have  better  or  more  abundant 
proof  of  the  want  of  harmony  in  ancient  verse,  than  is  fur- 
nished by  the  numerous  plans  proposed  from  time  to  time  by 
learned  theorists,  for    its  improvement.      Nor  could  we  have 
more  plenary  evidence   of   the   absurdity  of    the  received 
scheme.      Of  those  plans,  I  shall  briefly  describe  three  or 
four,  in  order  to  give  the  unlearned  reader  some  idea  of  the 
curious  pranks  that  have  been  played,  in  endeavouring  to  re- 
solve on  rational  principles,  effects  purely  imaginary. 

The  doctrines  of  one  class  of  prosodial  heretics  have  been 
minutely  expounded   by   Dr.  Foster,   and   Bishop  Horsley. 
These  writers  maintain,  and  plausibly  enough,  that  the  receiv- 
ed theory,  resting  as  it  does  on  nothing  but  length  of  syllables, 
is  altogether  deficient.     To  make  out  any  harmony  in  ancient 
verse,  we  must  call   in  aid,  say  they,   another  element   of 
speech,  namely  accent,  which  in  classic  languages,  as  before 
mentioned,  meant  tone,  though   with  us   it   means   emphasis. 
Accent,  they  say,  must  be  availed  of  if  we  wish  to  understand 
what  ancient  poetry  was,  or  hope  to  enjoy  any  pleasure  from 
it  at  present ;  and  Foster  assigns  to  it  even  a  greater  influ- 
ence than  to  quantity.      They    argue   the   matter  at  great 
length — deluge  you  with  classic  quotations  ;    and  though  full 
of  inconsistencies,  puerilities,  and  contradictions,  yet  treat  the 
subject  as  skilfully  as  perhaps  any  men  could  do,  who  had  no 
means  of  judging.     Lord  Monboddo  also  seems  to  join  in  the 
plan,  and  brings  in  his  full  quota  of  nonsense.      But  as  these 
15 


I] 4  CHAPTER   IX. 

celebrated  scholars  have  neglected  to  point  out  any  way,  in 
which  the  accents  can  be  used,  doubtless  for  a  very  good  rea- 
son, all  the  defects  so  loudly  condemned  in  the  received  sys- 
tem remain  just  as  they  were — they  have  been  amply  expo- 
sed, but  not  corrected.  In  a  word,  their  plan  is  no  improve- 
ment, for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  impracticable — and  in 
point  of  theory  equally  hypothetical.  Besides  which,  Mr. 
Moore,  and  numberless  others,  contend  that  accent  is  wholly 
subversive  of  quantity. 

Another  theory  with  which  the  world  has  been  favoured  by 
the  more  speculative  sort  of  unbelievers,  was  first  broached, 
I  believe,  by  the  famous  Vossius,  and  was  soon  espoused  by 
Hennenius,  Grevius,  and  a  long  train  of  learned  men.  These 
authors  are  of  the  opinion,  sanctioned  they  say  by  the  an- 
cients themselves,  that  accent  and  quantity  always  coincide — 
that  is  to  say,  that  the  accent  (the  acute  accent  I  mean)  falls 
always  and  exclusively  on  long  syllables ;  and  thus  by  mak- 
ing these  more  conspicuous  or  more  emphatic  in  pronuncia- 
tion, adds  wonderfully  to  the  force  as  well  as  the  melody  of 
Roman  verse.  This  theory,  which  was  anterior  to  that  be- 
fore mentioned,  was  so  ably  supported  that  it  made  a  prodi- 
gious disturbance  in  the  learned  world,  gained  many  converts, 
and  may  boast  of  numerous  disciples  at  this  very  day.  In- 
deed it  was  principally  to  check  the  inroads  made  by  the 
partizans  of  Vossius,  that  Doct.  Foster  was  induced  to  take  up 
the  pen — for  though  he  insists  himself,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
accents  should  be  used  some  how  or  other,  he  rails  stoutly,  and 
not  always  decently,  against  this  particular  mode  of  using 
them,  stigmatizing  it  as  "a  barbarous  and  perverted  applica- 
tion of  them." — Foster  contends  that  accent,  so  far  from  length- 
ening a  syllable,  as  the  German  theory  assumed,  has  directly 
a  contrary  effect ;  and  Horsley  says  the  same.  The  truth  is, 
that  Vossius's  scheme,  like  all  the  rest,  is  a  mere  creature  of 
the  fancy.  It  possesses  however  a  decided  advantage,  in 
point  of  simplicity,  both  over  Foster's  and  over  the  common 
one — which  in  a  matter  of  this  sort,  where  all  is  conjecture, 
is  no  slight  recommendation. 

Different  again  from  either  of  the  foregoing,  and  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  the  prosody  of  our  schools,  is  the  plan  re- 
commended and  perhaps  originated,  by  that  giant  in  Latin, 
Doct.  Bentley.  This  plan  requires  that  quantity,  the  sole 
constituent  in  the  received  scheme,  should  be  wholly  disre- 
garded, and  that  Latin  should  be  pronounced  exclusively  by 
accent.    It  would  seem  too,  from  Foster's  statement  of  it,  that 


CHAPTER   IX.  115 

Bentley  places  the   accent  precisely  where,  in  the  English 
mode  of  reading  Latin,  we  commonly   and  naturally  lay  the 
syllabic   emphasis.     The  example  given  by  him  and  copied 
by  Foster,  is  the  four  first  lines  of  Virgil  marked  exactly  in 
that  manner — after  which  Bentley  is  thus  quoted — "  He  that 
reads   these  verses  properly  and  tunefully   will   pronounce 
them  according  to  these  accentual  marks ;  and  not  like  school 
boys  scanning  them  and  placing  the  accent  at  the  beginning 
of  each  foot."     This  doctrine,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  is  well 
imagined,  extremely  accommodating,  and  would  save  a  world 
of  trouble.     It  is  also  admirably  calculated  to  console  the 
English  reader ;  for  though  it  militates  directly  against  our 
theory,  it  tallies  neatly  with  our  practice;  and  flatters  us  with 
the  belief  that  an  abundance  of  harmony  may  be  elicited  by 
pronouncing  Latin  verse  according  to  the  analogy  of  our  ver- 
nacular speech.     All  we  have  to  do  is  to  pronounce  in  a  high- 
er tone  (for  accent,  as  our  prosody  says,  was   anciently   tone) 
the  very  same  syllables  we  usually  and  naturally  emphasize, 
and  we  shall  hit  the  thing  exactly.     Bentley  indeed  might  per- 
haps let  us  off  on  still  easier  terms;  for  if  by  accent  he  should 
happen  to  mean  emphasis  (and  most  writers  have  sadly  con- 
founded them)  we  already  pronounce,  it  seems,  to  great  perfec- 
tion, notwithstanding  Doct.  Foster   and  hundreds  of  others 
have  complained  so  bitterly.  And  in  fact  it  is  pretty  certain  that 
such  was  his  meaning ;  for  although  we  are  told  from  high 
authority  (North  Am.  Rev.  vol.  11th  page  215)  that  practis- 
ing the  rules  of  Greek  accent,   is  a  very  material  part  of  an 
accurate  Greek  education,  yet  we  have  never  heard  of  the 
Greek  accent  being  attempted  by  any  one.     At   any  rate,  it 
cannot  be   denied  that  Bentley's   suggestion  is  full  of  good 
sense: — all  parties  admit  the  impossibility  of  conforming  our 
practice  to  the  existing  theory ;    and   surely  the  next  best 
thing  we  can  do,  is  to  take  a  theory  that  conforms  to  prac- 
tice. 

There  is  one  circumstance  worth  mentioning  here  to  show 
what  queer  notions  men  have  entertained  on  this  subject — 
which  is,  that  Scaliger  was  of  opinion  (if  we  can  depend  on 
Foster)  that  the  ancients  themselves  pronounced  .in  the  very 
way  Bentley  proposes — so  nicely  did  those  knowing  people 
foresee  where  English  readers  would  lay  the  emphasis. 

The  only  remaining  project  I  shall  refer  to,  (for  there  is  no 
end  of  them)  we  owe  to  the  prolific  ingenuity  of  Lord  Kames. 
Too  philosophical  to  be  satisfied  with  hypotheses  so  purely 
fanciful  as  those  already  described,  all  which,  together  with 


116  CHAPTER    IX. 

many  others,  he  must  have  examined,  his  Lordship  starts  a 
doctrine  as  bold  as  it  was  original.  He  sets  out  with  affirm- 
ing positively,  what  others  seem  only  to  imply,  that  dactyles, 
spondees,  and  the  whole  apparatus  of  prosody  as  now  taught, 
•was  an  artificial  contrivance  of  grammarians  merely  to  test 
the  accuracy  of  poetic  composition ;  and  that  no  melody 
whatever  can  be  extracted  by  attending  to  such  rules.  In 
lieu  therefore  of  principles  so  indefinite  and  arbitrary,  he  un- 
folds at  some  length  as  a  substitute,  a  system  of  pauses,  simple 
enough  and  of  easy  application — by  attending  to  which,  an- 
cient poetry  may  be  read,  he  says,  with  much  better  effect ; 
while  at  the  same  time  all  the  conditions  of  a  hexameter  line 
-will  be  fulfilled.  This  plan  seeks  no  aid  either  from  accent 
or  quantity,  yet  does  not  expressly  exclude  them ;  so  that 
these  may  be  availed  of  in  whatever  proportion  the  reader 
pleases.  One  can  hardly  avoid  feeling  some  surprise  at  the 
boldness  of  this  eminent  critic  in  thus  overtly  and  directly 
attacking  the  venerable  though  visionary  fabric  of  ancient 
prosody.  The  same  thing  is  done  obliquely,  to  be  sure,  by 
every  succedaneum  that  has  been  offered  ;  but  he  was  the 
first,  as  far  I  know,  who  recorded  his  protest  in  plain  lan- 
guage. As  to  the  merits  of  his  project,  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged to  be  at  least  as  good  as  any  before  described,  and  to 
be  supported  by  arguments  in  some  degree  plausible.  Walk- 
er remarks  upon  it  as  follows — "  When  we  consider  the  ob- 
scurity in  which  the  subject  is  involved,  and  the  inefficacy  of 
all  preceding  attempts  at  explanation,  we  cannot  much  won- 
der at  the  view  his  Lordship  has  taken."  The  Edin.  Ency- 
clopedia adopts  it  likewise  as  the  best  account  that  can  be 
given  of  the  elements  of  ancient  verse.  Nevertheless,  it  was 
obviously  made  up  for  the  emergency,  and  on  the  whole 
is  very  far  from  being  satisfactory. 

The  several  schemes  to  which  I  have  now  adverted,  and  as 
briefly  as  was  possible  to  give  any  idea  of  them,  are  among 
the  more  elaborate  efforts  made  at  various  periods  by  scholars 
themselves,  either  to  account  for  the  musical  effect  of  classic 
poetry  in  times  of  old,  or  to  convince  us  it  ought  to  be  musical 
now.  Considered  in  the  former  view,  they  are  all  deplorably 
ineffectual ;  in  the  latter  perfectly  farcical.  All  this  how- 
ever is  not  the  quarter  part  of  what  has  been  done  in  the 
same  way  to  save  appearances. 

There  is  yet  one  class  of  writers  who  deserve  to  be  men- 
tioned, were  it  only  for  the  conciliating  spirit  they  have  man- 
ifested.    Mr.  Primatt,  with  several  more,  apprehending  sen 


CHAPTER   IX.  117 

ous  consequences  from  the  warfare  raging  between  those  not- 
ed rivals,  accent  and  quantity,  backed  on  either  side  by  a  troop 
of  exasperated  partizans,  hit  on  an  excellent  method  of  hushing 
up  the  dispute  by  compromise.  His  proposition  was  todivide  the 
empire  equally  between  them,  by  allotting  the  domain  of  prose 
to  one,  and  the  region  of  poetry  to  the  other.  But  unfortu- 
nately, the  suggestion  was  by  no  means  so  kindly  received  by 
either  party  as  its  fairness  deserved ;  and  Bishop  Horsley  in 
particular  treated  it  with  great  contempt. 

The  preceding  schemes,  it  should  be  remarked,  are  such 
only  as  could  boast  of  a  class  of  disciples  more  or  less  nume- 
rous. It  was  not  worth  while  to  notice  individual  opinions,  or 
I  might  have  instanced  Mr.  Walker  as  having  laid  claim  to 
certain  improvements — and  so  with  Mr.  Harris,  Mr.  Fox,  and 
many  others. 

On  this  side  the  Atlantic,  the  more  sober  character  of  scho- 
larship, joined  to  the  want  of  leisure,  having  prevented  our 
academicians  from  taking  any  part  in  this  ridiculous  af- 
fair, the  disputes  just  alluded  to  have  been  little  known. 
Hence  the  prevailing  sentiment  among  our  critics  can  hardly 
be  determined ;  and  hence  too,  the  scheme  in  vogue  has  kept 
the  even  tenor  of  its  way  without  opposition,  and  almost  with- 
out suspicion.  We  have  little  data  even  for  conjecturing  what 
is  thought  on  controverted  points.  Mr.  Pickering,  I  should 
imagine,  however,  is  an  accentuallist,  and  that  Mr.  Everett 
for  the  most  part  takes  the  side  of  quantity.  Doct.  Wilson 
evidently  does  not  interest  himself  in  the  question — and  would 
consent  probably  to  lay  the  whole  machinery  of  prosody 
aside.     The  case  is  the  same,  I  suspect,  with  Mr.  Moore. 

I  would  now  beg  the  reader  to  pause  for  a  moment,  and  re- 
flect on  what  has  been  stated,  the  correctness  of  which,  on 
material  points,  will  not  be  called  in  question — And  I  would 
ask,  can  there  be  any  thing  rational  in  teaching  a  system  like 
that  in  use,  so  discordant  in  itself,  and  so  much  disputed  by 
men  the  best  qualified  to  judge?  Does  the  teaching  of  it 
comport  at  all  with  that  calm  philosophic  view  of  things,  of 
which  the  present  age  may,  in  most  respects,  so  justly  boast? 
Is  any  useful  substantial  knowledge  gained  thereby? — Cer- 
tainly not.  But  the  most  singular  fact  in  the  case  remains 
yet  to  be  explained — which  is,  that  the  system  is  not  in  the 
smallest  degree  conformed  to  in  reading  ancient  poetry,  as  I 
shall  presently  show.     It  is  completely  a  dead  letter. 

I  would  first  advert  however  to  a  theory  of  versification  of 
a  totally  different  character  from  either  of  the  preceding—' 


118  CHAPTER   IX. 

one  that  is  grounded  on  general  principles,  is  alike  common 
to  all  languages,  and  terminates  probably  much  nearer  the 
truth.  1  allude  to  what  is  suggested  by  Scoppa,  and,  as  it 
would  appear  from  him,  before  then,  by  St.  Augustine,  Sac- 
chi,  and  others — what  is  further  explained  by  Sheridan,  and 
also  by  Steele  in  his  prosodia  rationalis — and  fully  developed 
by  Odell  in  an  essay  published  in  1805.  This  last  mention- 
tioned  writer  treats  the  subject  in  a  manner  really  philosophi- 
cal. He  commences  with  a  scientific  analysis  of  articulate 
and  of  musical  sounds — he  then  investigates  the  audible  quali- 
ties of  the  dead  languages,  as  far  as  those  qualities  are  defi- 
nitely described  by  ancient  authors — examines  the  views  tak- 
en of  them  by  several  of  the  moderns  before-mentioned — 
quotes  many  passages  from  ancient  poets  to  prove  that  then, 
as  well  as  now,  syllables  were  of  various  lengths,  and  also 
that  their  verse  may  be  divided  in  various  ways  ;  and  in  fine, 
discusses  elaborately  the  nature  and  elements  of  versification 
in  general.  The  result  of  all  his  reasoning,  which  is  through- 
out equally  intelligible  and  philosophical,  is  as  follows, 

"  As  the  governing  principles  of  rythmus  (says  he)  is  there- 
fore not  to  be  found  in  length,  either  of  notes  or  syllables,  it 
can  only  be  in  the  emphasis — in  that  action  or  affection  which 
is  natural  to  ail  languages  and  to  every  species  of  melody, 
and  to  which  modern  grammarians  have  very  improperly  giv- 
en the  name  of  accent.  It  is  manifest  therefore  that  what 
has  been  hitherto  considered  a  great  defect  and  even  barba- 
rism in  modern  tongues,  has  at  all  times  been  alike  inherent 
in  every  language — namely,  that  in  versification  the  rythmus 
depends  on  emphatic  impulse." — To  this  he  adds,  that  "  with- 
out alternate  emphasis  and  remission,  the  most  exact  pronun- 
ciation of  long  and  short  syllables  in  any  language,  and  in 
any  possible  order,  would  be  a  mere  unanimated  syllabifica- 
tion." 

Now  here  we  have  an  hypothesis  in  a  tenfold  degree  more  ra- 
tional than  any  before  alluded  to ;  and  one  that  while  it  lowers 
amazingly  the  pretensions  of  ancient  poetry  in  its  best  estate, 
places  in  their  proper  light  those  numberless  imaginary  charms, 
the  illusive  idols  of  classic  faith. 

Let  us  now  revert  to  the  received  scheme  of  prosody,  for 
the  purpose  of  seeing  how  it  is  carried  into  operation,  or  to 
speak  more  accurately,  how  entirely  it  is  lain  aside  in  prac- 
tice. We  have  seen  that  the  scheme  is  founded  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  in  Greek  and  Latin  there  are  but  two  kinds  of  syl- 
lables in  point  of  length ;  and  also  that  nothing  but  syllabic 


CHAPTER   IX.  119 

quantity  need  be  regarded — all  which  however,  we  have 
likewise  seen,  is  contradicted  by  some  of  the  ancient,  and  a 
large  majority  of  the  best  modern  writers.  But  putting  out 
of  view  the  inference  naturally  suggested  by  the  latter  cir- 
cumstance, though  sufficient  of  itself  in  an  enlightened  age, 
one  would  think,  to  consign  the  whole  to  oblivion,  let  us  see 
what  the  scheme,  if  true,  would  require  to  make  it  effectual; 
and  let  us  compare  it  with  our  course  of  practice. 

It  is  evident  at  first  view,  that  to  realize  any  harmony  in 
ancient  poetry,  or  indeed  in  any  poetry,  something  more  is 
necessary  than  the  mere  comprehension  of  an  abstract  theo- 
ry. Homer  and  Virgil  would  never  sing  at  so  cheap  a  rate. 
To  be  sensible  of  any  melody  in  their  verse,  even  assuming  it 
to  be  constructed  conformably  to  the  theory  stated,  it  is  re- 
quisite that  a  reader  should  become  so  familiar  with  the  lan- 
guage as  to  decide,  while  he  reads,  that  each  syllable  be  long 
or  short  according  to  rule,  and  that  it  be  properly  placed — or 
at  least,  that  far  the  greater  portion  be  so — and  this  we  may 
venture  to  say  is  not  within  the  power  of  a  hundred  men  in 
this  country.  But  it  is  important  further  to  observe,  that  even 
this  would  not  suffice — the  reader  must  not  only  know  what 
syllables  are  called  long  and  what  short,  he  must  be  able  also 
to  attach  to  each  in  his  own  mind  a  proportionate  sound,  cor- 
responding with  its  true  length — for  without  sound,  or  an  asso- 
ciated idea  of  sound,  (of  which  latter  we  are  all  sensible  in 
reading  English),  there  most  certainly  can  be  no  melody. 
Now  this,  we  may  rely  upon  it,  no  modern,  of  any  age  or 
country,  has  ever  been  able  to  do,  or  ever  pretended  to  do. — 
So  far  from  any  thing  of  this  kind,  it  is  well  known  to  every 
student  of  Latin,  that  in  our  common  mode  of  reading  it,  pro- 
sodial  rules  and  length  of  syllables  are  never  thought  of — the 
pronunciation  being  entirely  governed  by  the  analogy  of  our 
own  language — and  Buttman  acknowledges  that  when  quanti- 
ty is  left  out  of  view  u  all  poetical  measure  is  lost." — But  in 
our  practice,  accent  is  neglected  as  much  as  quantity ;  and 
therefore  if  Doct.  Foster's  simile  be  just,  that  to  read  by  eith- 
er alone  is  like  a  man  walking  with  one  leg ;  to  omit  both  is 
certainly  very  much  like  walking  without  any  legs  at  all. 

It  is  very  true,  we  now  and  then  by  chance  place  a  long 
sound  coincident  with  rule ;  but  Doct.  Foster  laments  it 
should  so  seldom  happen,  and  gives  the  line  Tityre  tu  patuloz, 
&c.  as  an  example — remarking  that  we  here  make  but  two 
syllables  long,  though  our  rules  require  seven — and  the  same 
thing  occurs  more  or  less  in  every  line. 


120  CHAPTER   IX. 

And  besides,  each  modern  nation  has  its  own  peculiar  man- 
ner of  reading  the  dead  languages.  The  Germans  have  theirs, 
which  Foster  calls  barbarous — the  French  have  theirs,  which 
he  might  just  as  well  call  barbarous — and  the  Italians  have 
their  fashion.  And  these  manners  are  so  materially  different, 
that  the  people  of  one  country  can  with  difficulty  understand 
Latin  as  spoken  in  the  other 5  and  Monboddo  says,  if  Cicero  were 
living,  he  would  not  understand  a  single  word  spoken  by  either. 
Now  this  very  circumstance  might  disclose  to  us,  by  a  slight 
effort  of  thought,  the  true  state  of  the  case — which  is,  that 
whatever  there  be  of  an  agreeable  nature  in  the  dead  lan- 
guages, thus  variously  pronounced,  so  far  from  being  inherent 
in  them,  it  is  merely  the  harmonious  cadence,  vernacular  with 
each  people,  transferred  to  the  language  they  are  reading. 
There  is  no  other  possible  way  to  account  for  any  melody  at  all. 
And  is  it  conceivable  that  this  can  equal  in  degree  what  each 
nation  may  realize  from  vernacular  compositions,  where  words 
are  chosen  and  arranged  on  metrical  principles,  as  familiar  to 
the  reader  as  to  the  writer  ?  It  is  out  of  the  question.  The 
real  fact  is,  that  in  ancient  poetry  there  is  a  great  deficiency  of 
pleasing  cadence — it  is  an  instrument  entirely  out  of  tune — 
and  to  the  disappointment  thus  felt  by  classical  men,  with 
their  Homer  and  their  Virgil  before  them,  must  be  ascribed 
the  many  whimsical  and  abortive  attempts  at  improvement,  of 
which  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  the  reader  some  idea. 

We  have  all  heard,  however,  of  an  artificial  mode  of  read- 
ing among  boys  at  school,  called  scanning,  which  is  supposed 
by  people  unacquainted  with  the  subject,  and  even  by  many 
scholars,  to  be  a  conformity  to  ancient  pronunciation.  But 
in  truth,  it  is  no  conformity,  nor  even  an  approximation.  In 
scanning,  we  do  not  so  much  as  attempt  to  give  to  syllables  the 
length  of  sound  assigned  by  rule  ;  and  if  we  did  it  would  be 
in  vain.  The  most  that  is  aimed  at,  is  to  place  an  emphasis  on 
syllables  called  long  (though  not  long  in  fact)  instead  of  em- 
phasizing according  to  English  analogy.  But  emphasis,  we 
must  remember,  is  in  its  very  nature  a  distinct  thing  from 
length  of  sound,  and  can  in  no  case  produce  the  same  effect. 
So  that  in  the  scanning  process,  quantity  is  not  marked  at  all 
in  its  proper  way,  nor  ancient  accent  marked  in  any  way. 
The  whole  theory,  consequently,  by  which  we  profess  to  be 
governed,  is  as  completely  abandoned  in  this  mode  of  reading 
as  in  the  common  mode.  If  this  explanation  be  intelligible  to 
the  unlearned  reader,  for  whom  alone  it  was  intended,  he  will 
think  with  me  probably,  that  this  puerile  artifice  of  scanning, 


CHAPTER   IX.  121 

is  the  most  ridiculous  scene  in  the  whole  farce.  So  indeed  it 
is,  and  so  it  was  viewed  by  Bentley,  the  greatest  latinist  of 
modern  times,  as  well  as  by  Karnes,  to  say  nothing  of  many 
others  ;  and  so  I  dare  say  it  is  now  viewed  by  three  fourths 
of  those  whose  irksome  duty  it  is  to  listen,  day  after  day,  to 
this  whining  babble  of  the  school-room. 

I  have  now  shown  by  a  variety  of  reasoning,  as  well  as  by 
the  admission  of  scholars  themselves,  that  the  received  scheme 
of  prosody  is  vague,  hypothetical,  anomalous,  and  therefore, 
to  all  appearance,  spurious.  And  I  have  shown  further  that 
■whether  spurious  or  not,  it  is  never  in  the  smallest  degree  con- 
formed to. 

In  any  possible  view  of  the  subject  then,  one  very  remark- 
able circumstance  attends  the  case — a  circumstance  entirely 
unique — which  is,  that  the  very  theory  taught  with  such  un- 
wearied assiduity  in  our  schools,  and  there  encouraged  by  the 
highest  honours,  and  the  greatest  rewards  (literally  speaking) 
in  reality  explains  nothing  ;  neither  the  harmony  supposed  to 
have  been  enjoyed  by  the  ancients,  nor  what  is  said  to  be  en- 
joyed by  moderns.  Almost  every  writer  has  confessed  it  to 
be  utterly  incompetent  to  either.  In  the  name  of  common 
sense  then  (if  common  sense  is  to  have  any  sway)  what  is  the 
theory  for  ?  And  do  we  live  in  an  age  when  our  most  respect- 
able seminaries  countenance  things  of  this  sort  ? — when  absur- 
dities, at  once  so  palpable  and  so  puerile,  are  to  be  sanction- 
ed, and  the  precious  time  of  our  youth  wasted  on  them,  mere- 
ly because  they  have  come  down  to  us  as  a  part  of  the  sys- 
tem ? 

Dr.  Gregory  certainly  speaks  much  too  favourably  of  this 
mass  of  nonsense  in  calling  it  "  a  species  of  elegant  trifling," 
it  is  at  best  a  stupid  and  childish  plaything. 

While  therefore  it  remains  for  parents  to  determine,  if  they 
will  any  longer  consent  to  waste  their  children's  time  on  stud- 
ies so  foolish  and  so  useless,  1  submit  to  the  reader,  whether 
the  mere  fact  of  such  a  scheme  forming  part  of  the  regular 
and  usual  course  of  classical  education,  is  not,  of  itself  alone, 
enough  to  create  a  suspicion  that  the  whole  system  is  illusory 
in  its  promised  advantages  and  objects  ;  and  whether,  in  this 
way,  it  does  not  corroborate,  in  some  measure  at  least,  the 
views  and  reasonings  presented  in  former  chapters.. 

Q^rFor  Note  of  References  see  next  page* 
16 


122  CHAPTER  IX. 


NOTE    OF   REFERENCES   TO   CHAP.   IX. 

The  following  works,  as  far  as  any  one  might  be  inclined  to 
examine  them,  would  be  found  to  confirm  the  representations 
here  given  of  Ancient  Poetry.  Some  few  pages  are  noted  as 
bearing  more  particularly  on  important  points,  and  as  supply- 
ing quotations. 

Walker's  Key,  page  315  to  324—334,  343. 

Foster  on  Accent  and  Quantity,  page  68,  53,  294,  297,  305, 
361. 

Horsley's  Prosody,  page  1 1,  22,  26,  55,  124. 

Odell's  Essay,  page  131,  134,  142,  149,  174,  187. 

Monboddo,  vol.  2.  p.  329,  330,  415. 

Buttman's  Grammar,  p.  15,  282. 

Karnes's  Elements,  chap.  18. 

Lowth's  Lectures,  p.  44. 

Harris's  Inquiries,  part  2.  chap.  2. 

Edin.  Ency. — Article,  Poetry. 

Rees'  Ency. — Art.  Accent — Quantity — Prosody — Versifi- 
cation. 

Nares  on  Orthoepy,  p.  141,  209. 

Aristotle's  Poetics  by  Pye,  p.  397,  402. 

Correspondence  between  Wakefield  and  Fox,  p.  118. 

Mitford's,  Knight's,  Pickering's,  and  Moore's  Essays  on  the 
pronunciation  of  Greek  and  Latin. 

Beattie's  Essay  on  Poetry,  p.  278. 

Scoppa's  Vrais  principes  de  Versification,  p.  131,  141, 147. 
182. 

Sheridan's  Lectures. 

North  Am.  Review,  No.  24,  Art.  7. 


CHAPTER    X.  123 


CHAPTER  X. 

Concluding  Remarks  on  the  general  subject. 

The  several  alleged  advantages  of  classical  studies,  as  enu- 
merated at  page  18,  and  embracing  every  thing  of  any  conse- 
quence, have  now  all  been  examined,  and  proved  to  be  falla- 
cious. Some  persons,  however,  may  still  be  inclined  to  think, 
that  though  neither  argument  has  any  great  force  separately 
taken,  yet  the  whole  together  may  amount  to  a  justification 
of  the  reigning  system.  To  this  it  may  be  answered,  that 
many  fractions  make  but  a  small  sum.  It  may  be  replied  fur- 
ther, that  the  recommendations  there  specified  can  operate 
collectively,  but  very  seldom.  It  can  happen  only  when  an 
acquaintance  with  ancient  languages,  and  ancient  authors  is 
both  accurate  and  familiar — a  thing  of  extremely  rare  occur- 
rence, and  not  otherwise  attainable  than  by  devoting  to  the 
object  many  years  of  manhood,  in  addition  to  the  usual  col- 
legiate course.  And  can  the  boon  be  so  inestimable  as  to  re- 
quite a  whole  life  of  study  ? 

In  point  of  fact,  it  is  a  large  allowance  to  suppose  that  one 
in  a  hundred  perseveres  to  this  degree.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  scholar  who  lays  aside  his  books  with  his  college  robe, 
must  know  far  too  little  of  the  languages,  (whatever  these 
might  be  capable  of!  either  to  improve  his  style — to  enlarge 
his  information — to  multiply  his  sources  of  amusement — or  to 
trace  the  genealogy  of  words  derived  from  classic  tongues. 
Here  then,  are  four  out  of  the  half  dozen  every-day  argu- 
ments which  have  clearly  nothing  to  do  with  students  of 
this  description,  who  nevertheless  compose  ninety-nine  of 
every  hundred.  With  respect  to  all  such,  no  hope  is  left,  but 
for  the  employment  of  their  time — the  exercise  of  their  men- 
tal faculties — or  the  improvement  of  their  grammar.  Now  I 
grant  that  their  time  is  employed,  and  to  a  deplorable  extent. 
I  grant  also,  that  their  mind  is  exercised,  though  by  no  means 
in  the  best  way — but  as  to  English  grammar,  this  most  cer- 
tainly could  in  no  respect  be  aided  by  the  utmost  skill  in  for- 
eign tongues,  that  ever  fell  to  the  lot  of  man. 


124  CHAPTEU    X. 

And  besides,  how  few  whose  patience  holds  out  even  as  far 
as  the  college.  The  more  usual  practice  is  to  close  their  labours 
at  the  grammar  school,  and  then  go  their  ways  into  the  world, 
one  to  his  farm,  another  to  his  merchandize.  The  little  they 
have  learnt  was  never  understood  ;  or  if  understood,  is  soon 
forgotten ;  and  the  consequence  is,  they  carry  through  life  the 
mortifying  recollection  (participated  however,  by  not  a  few  of 
deeper  learning)  of  having  wasted  many  a  precious  year  on 
studies  sanctioned  only  by  custom,  to  the  neglect  of  others, 
of  which  they  daily  and  hourly  feel  the  want.  Indeed  the 
little  smattering  of  Latin,  picked  up  with  such  unceasing  toil 
at  the  grammar  school,  is  quite  as  much  as  either  the  tempej* 
or  the  taste  of  most  children  can  bear ;  and  as  much,  it  wouhj 
appear,  as  most  parents  desire.  But  such  a  course  of  pro- 
ceeding, though  by  far  the  most  usual,  has  been  condemned 
and  ridiculed  by  the  greater  portion  even  of  professed  advo- 
cates of  classical  studies,  and  by  Dr.  Knox  among  the  rest. 
"  The  time  |  says  he)  that  is  usually  spent  on  Lilly's  grammar, 
(the  common  Latin  grammar  of  his  day,)  and  in  acquiring 
just  so  much  knowledge  of  Latin  as  may  inspire  a  young  man 
with  conceit,  is  certainly  very  ill  bestowed."*  The  lot  of 
this  class  of  students  is  really  the  hardest  lot  of  all — they 
have  not  even  the  reputation  of  learning  to  solace  them. 
Those  who  go  through  their  education,  as  the  phrase  is,  do 
perhaps  a  little  better.  In  virtue  of  their  diploma,  they  take 
rank  with  scholars  ;  and  thus  the  pride  of  scholarship  be- 
comes a  partial  offset,  and  brings  in  a  small  drop  of  consola- 
tion.    This  is  little  enough  to  be  sure  ;  still  it  is  something. 

But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  does  scholarship  raise  her  crest 
so  high  ? — Why  do  men  plume  themselves  on  acquisitions  so 
indeterminate,  and  so  unsubstantial  ?  The  reason,  as  I  be- 
lieve, simply  is,  because  academic  influence  has  set  its  seal  on 
that  sort  of  acquisition,  and  fashion  has  attached  her  counter- 
sign. It  is  worth  remembering  however,  that  there  was  a 
time  whem  alchemy  enjoyed  the  same  consideration,  and  was 
sustained  by  the  same  means  as  Greek  and  Latin  are  now  ; 
and  another  time  when  the  only  avenue  to  fame  led  through 
the  dreary  maze  of  syllogistic  logic.  There  was  also  a  time,  and 
that  too  the  vaunted  era  of  Greece  and  Rome,  when  physical 
science  (the  most  valuable,  because  the  most  useful  of  human 


Knox's  3d  Essay. 


CHAPTER    X.  125 

attainments)  was  literally  banished  from  the  world  by  this  very 
tyrant,  fashion.  In  a  word,  as  fashion  determines  most  things, 
whether  in  the  way  of  adoption  or  exclusion,  she  has  given 
her  passport  to  many  a  folly ;  and  by  enlisting  on  its  side  a 
numerous  train  of  interested  defenders,  has  often  made  her  bant- 
ling a  modish  personage  for  several  generations.  It  is  indeed 
the  very  nature  of  established  opinion,  right  or-  wrong,  to  per- 
petuate itself;  for  what  all  take  to  be  sound,  though  never  pro- 
ved to  be  so,  few  will  give  themselves  the  trouble  to  scrutinize 
— and  thus  it  happens  that  error  is  transmitted  from  age  to  age, 
as  it  were  by  common  consent.  But  can  fashion,  or  custom 
if  you  please  to  call  it,  by  whatever  influence  upheld,  be  of 
paramount  authority  in  a  rational  philosophic  point  of  view  ? 
By  no  means — She  may  be  summoned  at  any  time  to  the  bar 
of  reason,  to  justify  her  decisions  ;  and  this  is  exactly  the 
object  in  the  present  instance. 

The  attempt  has  been  to  show,  both  by  argument,  and  by 
the  confessions  of  scholars  themselves,  that  classical  learning, 
under  its  more  usual  and  most  specious  forms  of  vindication, 
is  not  to  be  justified  ;  and  if  this  has  been  satisfactorily  ac- 
complished, it  is  quite  enough  for  the  purpose.  To  go  fully 
into  the  numerous  collateral  topics,  connected  by  one  channel 
and  another,  with  the  general  theme  ;  or  to  investigate  the  va- 
riety of  minor  influences,  that  have  lent  their  aid  to  the  exist- 
ing system,  might  have  far  exceeded  the  scope  of  the  writer's 
intelligence,  and  quite  as  far  perhaps,  the  reader's  patience. 

Two  or  three  things  of  this  nature,  however,  may  be  very 
briefly  adverted  to.  And  in  the  first  place  may  be  noticed 
the  close  alliance  that  has  always  subsisted  between  the  dead 
languages  and  the  fine  arts.  The  extraordinary  celebrity  the 
latter  enjoyed  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  as  objects 
of  taste,  was  of  incalculable  service  to  the  former.  The 
fashion  of  the  times  ran  altogether  in  the  channel  of  the  arts, 
assigning  the  highest  distinction  to  success  in  those  depart- 
ments ;  and  the  best  early  models  having  been  derived  from 
Greece  and  Rome,  it  was  natural  enough  to  look  to  the  same 
source  for  excellence  in  every  kind — of  course  their  language 
must  be  studied,  and  their  literature  explored.  Of  course  too, 
the  multitude  of  persons  connected  in  various  ways  with  aca- 
demic institutions,  would  afford  all  possible  patronage  to  the 
arts,  for  sake  of  its  reaction  on  ancient  literature  ;  and  while 
this  class  of  men  on  the  one  hand,  were  lavishing  their  enco- 
miums on  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  a  host  of  artists 


126  CHAPTER   X. 

and  amateurs  on  the  other,  were  no  less  active  in  magnifying 
the  advantages  of  classical  learning.  In  this  way  have  the 
scholar  and  the  artist  reciprocated  their  compliments  with 
great  effect,  and  secured  a  high  standing  for  both — a  standing 
in  my  opinion  altogether  unmerited,  as  regards  the  first  ;  and 
in  some  measure  so,  as  regards  the  last. 

Another  thing  that  might  very  properly  be  included  in  a 
comprehensive  view  of  the  subject,  would  be  the  state  of  gen- 
eral knowledge,  as  found  in  Greece  and  Rome,  compared  with 
that  of  other  cotemporary,  or  still  more  ancient  people.      By 
an  appeal  to  facts  brought  to  light  of  late  years  by  philosoph- 
ical researches  into  the  early  condition  of  eastern  nations, 
such  a  comparison  might  be  drawn  very  little  to  the  advantage 
of  the  classic  age.     The  Chinese  unquestionably,  were  supe- 
rior in  all  useful   branches  of  knowledge  at  least,  if  not  in 
others  ;  and  so  were,  or  had  been  the  Egyptians  and  Persians. 
In  Hindostan  too,  according  to  Sir  W.  Jones,  and  other  anti- 
quarians, science  no  less  than  art  was  carried  quite  as  far  as 
in  Greece,  perhaps  farther — and  the  same  thing  occurred  not 
long  after  in  Arabia.     Yet  some  people  seem  to  think  that  the 
only  civilization  that  ever  smiled  upon  the  world  was  born  in 
Greece,  and  died  in  Rome — which  by  the  way,  is  very  much 
the  notion  our  lads  imbibe  at  school. 

Another  topic  again  that  might  well  deserve  some  attention, 
is  the   intrinsic  merit  of  classic   languages — on  the  beauties 
and  perfections  of  which,  scholars  have  never  ceased  to  ring 
the  changes  for  many  centuries  past.      Every  thing  that  is  ad- 
mirable, in  point  of  intellectual  refinement,  has  been  inferred 
from  modes  of  speech  so  curiously  contrived.      But  however 
well  it  may  have  done,  at  one  time,  to  talk  in  such  a  strain  ; 
yet  now,  since  the  same  peculiarities  are  found  to  exist,  and 
even  to  greater  perfection,  in  every   dialect  of  our  savage 
tribes  (a  coincidence,  by  the  bye,  at  which  Monboddo  more 
than  hinted  some  fifty  years  ago)  we  are  bound  in  common 
honesty,  to  strike  all  this  from  our  list  of  wonders.      Never- 
theless, the  same  antiquated  notions  still  keep  possession  of 
our  schools  ;    and,  by  that  very  influence,  are  still  buoyed  up 
on  the  stream  of  error  in  public  opinion. 

On  the  subjects  just  mentioned,  together  with  many  more, 
very  erroneous  impressions,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  are  yet 
prevalent  ;  and  in  proportion  as  these  shall  be  dissipated  by 
the  active  spirit  of  inquiry  now  abroad  in  the  world,  the  props 
and  stays  of  the  ancient  fabric  will  fall  away.     My  aim  has 


CHAPTER   X.  127 

been  levelled  at  its  very  foundation — its  corner  stones — and  I 
say  now,  as  I  said  before,  that  either  the  course  of  reasoning 
here  pursued,  must  be  fairly  met  and  confuted  ;  or  things  must 
be  left  to  go  on  by  the  mere  impetus  of  habit,  without  any  ap- 
peal to  rational  considerations.  But  when  matters  are 
brought  to  this  pass,  reason  is  abandoned. 

In  closing  the  subject,  I  must  be  allowed  to  observe,  that  if 
any  who  dip  their  pens  at  the  classic  fount,  be  roused  on  this 
occasion,  they  should  not  trust  too  much  to  mere  declamation, 
or  even  elegant  composition.  As  little  would  it  help  their 
cause  to  cavil  at  the  manner  in  which  objections  are  urged  ; 
or  to  endeavour  to  hunt  down  an  assailant  with  the  hue  and 
cry  of  barbarism — for  though  such  expedients  have  often  suc- 
ceeded, it  is  too  late  in  the  day  for  all  that.  Nor  would  it 
aught  avail,  to  prove  even  to  demonstration,  that  Greek  and 
Latin  have  been  of  essential  service  to  the  modern  world  ;  for 
as  much  may  be  said  of  numberless  things  now  wisely  aban- 
doned. The  science  of  heraldry,  for  example,  was  unques- 
tionably at  one  time  a  useful  study,  being  closely  allied  to  the 
tenure  of  property,  of  title,  and  of  rank  ;  but  as  the  state  of 
society  became  changed,  heraldric  learning  was  permitted  to 
die  away.  In  like  manner  the  institutions  of  chivalry  had  no 
doubt  a  powerful  tendency  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  to 
civilize  a  rude  unlettered  age — yet  whoever  might  now  advise 
us  to  mount  the  spear  and  the  helmet  to  vindicate  the  rights 
of  the  fair,  would  most  assuredly  become  a  fair  object  of  rid- 
icule. The  sex  with  us,  thank  heaven,  stand  in  no  need  of 
knights-errant  to  rescue  them  from  caprice  and  tyranny,  such 
as  they  were  occasionally  exposed  to  at  that  period  ;  nor 
from  a  state  of  forlorn  seclusion,  tenfold  more  galling,  and  a 
thousand  fold  more  degrading,  like  that  under  which  they  lan- 
guished in  Greek  and  Roman  times.  From  classic  bondage 
they  were  effectually  emancipated  by  those  anti-classical  peo- 
ple, the  Goths  and  Vandals. 

Neither  mode  of  defence,  I  say,  above  described,  would  be 
any  vindication  of  the  existing  system.  Its  advocates  have  a 
more  arduous  task  to  perform.  If  indeed,  they  could  make 
it  appear,  that  knowledge  and  science  in  all  their  variety,  or 
even  any  one  important  branch,  is  better  displayed  in  ancient 
than  in  modern  tongues,  it  would  be  something  to  the  purpose. 
But  where  is  the  man  who  will  advance  any  such  pretensions? 
However,  be  their  claims  what  they  may,  let  them  be  stated 


128  CHAPTER  X. 

in  a  definite  tangible  form — let  us  no  longer  be  deluged  with 
vague  assertion  and  splendid  panegyric.  According  to  my 
way  of  thinking,  Greek  and  Latin  have  long  outlived  their 
usefulness.  If  any  really  think  otherwise,  it  is  incumbent  on 
them  not  only  to  designate  what  valuable  ends  can  thereby  be 
attained,  but  to  show  how  they  can  be  attained,  or  as  scholars 
phrase  it,  the  modus  operandi.  To  do  less  than  this  would 
be  doing  nothing. 


APPENDIX. 


Note  A  referred  to  at  page  36. 

The   following  Extracts   are   from   a   review  of  Barrett's 
Grammar,  in  the  North  American  of  April,  1821. 

"  For  mere  English  learners,  the  process  (that  of  parsing) 
is  the  more  preposterous  as  the  names  of  the  parts  of  speech, 
of  most  of  the  inflexions,  and  of  the  rules  of  grammar,  are  a 
dead  letter  to  them — built  on  analogies  wholly  unknown  to 
them,  and  often  grounded  on  the  analogy  of  languages 
wholly  different  in  their  structure  from  the  English.  Much  of 
our  grammar  is  accordingly  not  English  grammar,  but  rules 
for  translating  Latin  into  English.  We  have  but  two  cases  in 
our  nouns,  but  are  taught  in  some  grammars  (old  ones  he 
means)  that  there  are  six.  Not  more  than  half  our  adjectives 
have  degrees  of  comparison  ;  and  all  that  is  strictly  true 
about  the  rest  is,  that  pulcrior  instead  of  being  rendered  beau- 
tifuller,  should  be  rendered  more  beautiful.  In  the  verbs,  we 
have  but  one  tense  besides  the  present,  and  yet  our  English 
grammars  fit  out  the  verb  with  six  tenses.  But  to  say  that  the 
perfect  tense  of  /ore,  is  /  have  loved,  means  that  amavi,  for 
want  of  a  corresponding  English  inflection,  must  be  translated 
/  have  loved,  which  by  the  way  it  does  not  mean  more  than, 
half  the  time.  Much  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  modes  ; 
and  had  the  Arabian  Grammarians  attained  the  ascendancy 
in  the  European  schools,  which  the  Latin  ones  did,  our  verbs 
would  probably  have  been  adorned  with  28  conjugations  in 
imitation  of  that  copious  language. 

"The  most  that  can  be  useful  in  the  science  of  English  gram- 
mar, is  to  have  a  name  and  a  rule  for  all  the  inflections  and 
peculiarities,  which  really  exist.  But  to  have  an  English 
tense,  or  an  English  case,  for  every  thing  analagous  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  is  to  study  (to  teach)  Latin  and  Greek,  and  not 
English.  Nor  is  there  any  greater  propriety  in  having  a  first 
and  second  future  in  English,  than  a  first  and  second  aorist 
and  a  dual  number.  And  since  there  exists,  and  probably  will 
17 


130  APPENDIX. 

continue  to,  a  strong  hankering  after  what  is  called  parsing, 
we  really  wish  some  judicious  teacher  would  have  courage  to 
analyse  the  language  as  it  is,  and  teach  his  children  not  Latin 
and  Greek  grammar  in  disguise,  but  simple  English." 

Now  all  this,  though  a  downright  classical  heresy,  I  look 
upon  to  be  sound  sense.  But  the  call  here  made  on  judicious 
teachers  to  analyse  the  language  as  it  is,  and  teach  their  child- 
ren (their  scholars  too  is  probably  meant)  the  true  English 
grammar,  comes  with  not  the  best  grace  from  one  who  sees  the 
evil,  and  has  abundant  leisure  to  apply  himself  to  its  correc- 
tion. The  bulk  of  our  teachers,  he  well  knows,  are  Latin 
scholars,  placed  in  English  schools  ;  and  it  would  seem  from 
this  account,  entirely  misplaced.  Such  men  have  no  motive, 
either  from  pride  or  interest,  to  lessen  the  reputation  of  Latin, 
and  this  probably  is  the  reason  they  are  not  judicious  in  the 
way  so  much  desired  by  the  reviewer.  To  my  knowledge, 
however,  there  are  teachers,  acquainted  only  with  English, 
and  who  instruct  only  in  that,  fully  sensible  of  the  evil  here 
pointed  out — but  they  are  men,  whose  office  is  no  sinecure  ; 
whose  whole  time  is  absorbed,  and  whose  body  and  mind  are 
wearied,  by  the  numberless  annoyances  of  a  daily  school  ; 
who  have  little  leisure  therefore,  either  to  make  books,  or 
translate  them.  Besides  which,  they  are  well  aware  that,  as 
opinion  now  stands,  no  improvement  of  this  kind,  suggested 
by  a  mere  English  scholar,  would  be  listened  to  for  a  moment. 
But  why  does  not  the  Professor  himself  become  that  judicious 
teacher  he  really  tcishes  should  appear  ? — Why  has  not  he  giv- 
en us  that  genuine  English  grammar  so  much  wanted,  instead 
of  an  additional  Greek  grammar  not  wanted  at  all  ? 

Note  B  referred  to  at  page  46. 

What  is  said  on  the  Chinese  language  at  page  46,  stands  the 
same  as  first  printed  in  the  newspaper  ;  and  it  was  left  so  in 
order  that  mistakes  might  be  acknowledged.  Having  never 
previously  examined  any  Grammar,  Dictionary,  or  other  work 
professedly  designed  to  explain  the  curious  structure  of  that 
language,  my  impressions  were  derived  from  various  incidental 
notices  of  it,  which  had  fallen  in  my  way.  I  had  supposed 
that  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  more  complex  Chinese  char- 
acters, were  compounded,  like  the  characters  themselves,  of 
others  more  simple,  and  were  therefore  complex  ideas.  I 
had  supposed  likewise,  that  many  of  those  characters  admit- 
ted certain  changes,  for  the  purpose  of  grammatical  construe- 


APPENDIX.  131 

Lion,  though  nowise  analogous  to  verbal  inflexions  in  other  lan- 
guages. 

It  appears,  however,  on  reference  to  Marsham's  Grammar, 
which,  by  the  way  is  one  of  the  most  philosophical  exposi- 
tions I  ever  saw  of  any  idiom,  that  my  impression  was  erro- 
neous on  both  points — and  that  I  had  entirely  forgotten  what 
had  long  before  been  said  on  the  subject  by  Monboddo,  whose 
remarks,  it  would  seem,  were  pretty  correct.     The  fact  is,  the 
ideas  denoted  by  the  more  complex  form  of  Chinese  symbols 
are  as  simple  as  any  others,  however  compounded  that  form 
itself  may  be.     Then  as  to  grammatical  construction,  this  de- 
pends not  in  the  least  on  inflexion,  for  there  is  no  such  thing ; 
but  wholly  on  position.     It  appears  also,  and  perhaps  necessa- 
rily results  from  the  case,  that  the  meaning  of  a  character  is 
materially  influenced  by  the  circumstance  of  position,  though 
its  form  remains  unalterably  the  same.      One  and  the  same 
sign  may  be  a  verb,  a  noun,  or  any  other  part  of  speech  (as 
we  should  term  it)  according  to  its  place  in  the  sentence — 
which  indeed  often  happens  in  our  own  language  and  more  or 
less  perhaps  in  all.     The  Chinese,  however,  is  probably  the 
only  language  whose  grammar  is  wholly  and  exclusively  re- 
solved by  position  ;  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  admira- 
bly  well   the   end   is   accomplished   by   means    so   simple. 
Tooke's  view  of  the  origin  of  particles  in  our  vernacular  idiom 
is  so  fully  illustrated  by  almost  every  sentence  of  the  Chinese, 
that  had  the  latter  been  well  understood  in  Europe  a  century 
ago,  his  ingenious  discoveries   would  in  all  probability,  have 
been  by  many  years  anticipated.      It  is  worth  remarking  too, 
that  what  has  been  termed  Universal  Grammar,  is  here  com- 
pletely at  fault — its  universality  is  conclusively  disproved. 

From  what  sources  were  derived  my  own  mistaken  notions 
first  alluded  to,  is  to  be  sure  of  little  consequence — they  were 
errors,  and  I  willingly  renounce  them.  One  of  those  sources, 
however,  was  unquestionably  a  passage  from  Remusat,  quoted 
both  by  Mr.  Duponceau  and  Mr.  Pickering,  in  whose  essays 
it  had  often  met  mjT  eye,  though  to  my  present  surprise,  with- 
out engaging  much  attention.  It  is  as  follows — "  It  is  indeed, 
impossible  (says  he)  to  express  in  any  language  the  energy  of 
those  picturesque  characters  (the  Chinese)  which  exhibit  to 
the  eye,  instead  of  barren  and  arbitrary  sounds,  the  objects 
themselves  figured  and  represented  by  their  most  character- 
istic traits,  so  that  it  would  require  several  phrases  to  express 
the  signification  of  a  single  word."  Now  to  say  nothing  of 
the  exceedingly  inaccurate  discription  here  given  of  Chinese 


132  APPENDIX. 

characters,  one  can  hardly  avoid  inferring  from  the  whole 
spirit  of  these  remarks,  that  the  writer  entertained  very  sin- 
gular and  very  unphilosophical  views  of  the  nature  of  lan- 
guage in  general.  For  why  talk  of  the  energy  of  picturesque 
characters,  as  if  the  vividnesss  or  the  precision  of  the  idea  de- 
pended on  the  form  of  the  symbol.  Why  talk  about  barren 
and  arbitrary  sounds,  as  if  sounds  or  signs  could,  in  themselves, 
be  any  thing  more  than  barren  and  arbitrary.  Why  talk 
about  objects  figured  and  represented  by  their  most  characteristic 
traits,  as  if  written  language,  could  by  possibility  be  any 
thing  more  than  signs,  of  conventional  meaning — and  as  if 
pictures  could  be  better  than  words  !  Why  indeed  talk  about 
sound  in  any  way,  as  an  object  of  sight?  All  this,  I  confess, 
is  to  me  very  extraordinary — and  that  notions  so  unphiloso- 
phical, or  expressions  so  loose  (take  it  as  you  will)  should 
have  been  cited  without  comment  by  the  writers  before 
named,  is  not  much  less  extraordinary. 

Note  C  referred  to  at  page  55. 

Allusion  is  made  at  page  55  to  the  common  cant  of  the  day, 
that  the  Greeks  were  original  in  every  thing  they  did.  How 
far  this  was  really  the  case  in  matters  of  literature,  moderns 
have  had  no  means  of  judging,  though  they  have  not  on  this 
account  been  less  forward  in  deciding.  It  may  or  may  not 
be  true  as  the  Northampton  teachers  asserted  in  their  prospec- 
tus, (a  somewhat  clumsy  performance,  by  the  way,  not- 
withstanding their  scholarship)  that  in  tragedy  and  poetry  the 
Grecians  "had  no  predecessors  to  imitate;"  but  most  certain- 
ly it  is  not  true,  though  asserted  with  equal  confidence,  that 
such  was  the  case  in  philosophy.  The  doctrines  of  the  an- 
cient Academy,  the  Stoa,  and  the  Lyceum,  had  each  of  them 
their  prototype,  Sir  W.  Jones  says,  in  India.  It  was  a  pretty 
general  practice  among  the  Greeks,  if  we  are  to  believe  their 
own  story,  for  men  of  inquisitive  minds  to  travel  into  Egypt 
and  elsewhere  in  search  of  knowledge;  from  whence  they  in 
fact  derived  the  greater  part  and  the  better  part  (though  poor 
enough  at  best)  of  what  comes  down  to  us  as  Grecian  wisdom. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  with  Pythagoras,  who  resided 
in  Egypt  for  many  years,  and  carried  thence  a  variety  of 
elementary  knowledge  in  geometry  and  other  subjects,  no 
small  portion  of  which  he  palmed  on  his  countrymen  as  origi- 
nal discoveries. — (See  Brucker's  history  of  Philsophy.)  Mon- 
boddo  remarks  of  this  noted  Grecian  plagiarist  that  he  found- 


APPENDIX.  133 

ed  the  wisest  sect  that  ever  existed  except  the  Egyptian  Magi. 
But  what  shall  we  think  of  the  teachers  abovementioned 
when  they  tell  us  that  in  philosophy  the  Grecians  "  have  never 
been  equalled  in  succeeding  times  ?" — How  much  superior  must 
their  penetration  be  to  that  of  Bacon,  Descartes,  Newton, 
Locke,  Stewart,  and  some  hundreds  of  the  like,  who  had  come 
to  a  very  different  conclusion. 

It  is  also  announced  by  those  same  gentlemen  that  "no  one 
science  can  be  thoroughly  learnt  without  an  acquaintance 
with  the  Latin  tongue ;  while  there  is  none,  for  the  study  of 
which,  Greek  is  indispensably  requisite."  But  here  unlucki- 
ly they  come  directly  in  contact  with  another  learned  The- 
ban,  who  tells  a  very  different  story.  We  are  assured  by 
him  that  Greek  is  "  the  Promethean  torch  to  literature"  and 
that  without  it  "all  is  lifeless  and  obscure,  while  its  genial  in- 
fluence pervades  and  gives  life  and  animation  to  the  remotest 
region  of  science."  (North  Am.  Rev.  vol.  2  new  series,  page 
210.)  The  intelligent  reader  need  not  be  informed  that 
both  statements  are  purely  hyperbolical,  and  noways  near  the 
truth.  Nor  must  we  conclude  that  the  real  opinions  of  these 
writers  are  wide  apart — the  want  of  agreement  in  their  dog- 
mas may  be  resolved  by  circumstances.  The  former  had 
adopted  Latin  as  a  regular  branch  of  instruction,  but  not 
Greek.  The  latter  is  a  Greek  scholar  by  profession,  and  was 
writing  an  essay  to  show  its  superior  importance  to  Latin. 

But  perhaps  it  is  never  quite  fair  to  take  scholars  at  their 
word  on  themes  of  this  kind.  They  are  in  some  sort  privi- 
leged characters.  Mounted  on  their  hobby,  they  often  run 
truth  and  common  sense  quite  out  of  sight.  We  are  not  to 
suppose  these  writers  so  low  in  intelligence  as  really  to  be- 
lieve either  Greek  or  Latin  indispensable,  or  even  materially 
convenient,  in  any  branch  of  science.  They  know  well  enough 
that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  had  among  them  any  thing  de- 
serving the  name  of  science ;  or  at  least  that  nothing  has  descend- 
ed to  our  times  save  only  some  elementary  truths  in  Geometry. 
They  know  besides  that  modern  Europe  was  farmore  indebted 
to  the  Arabians  than  to  either — that  chemistry,  medicine,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  astronomy  and  many  other  things,  even  geom- 
etry, were  carried  to  greater  perfection  under  the  Caliphs 
than  under  Pericles  or  Augustus — though  the  whole  together 
is  as  dust  to  the  balance  compared  with  the  splendid  achieve- 
ments of  modern  genius.  It  is  well  known  to  them  that  a 
comprehensive  and  accurate  display  of  every  science  is  found 
in  living  languages,  and  in  those   only — all  this  I  say  is  well 


134  APPENDIX. 

known  to  most  scholars ;  and  all  they  assert  to  the  contrary  is 
well  understood  among  themselves  and  among  scientific  men. 
But  the  mischief  of  the  thing  is  that  the  community  at  large 
(including  many  well  informed  persons,  not^onversant  however 
in  these  matters)  are  imposed  upon  by  this  incessant  flourish 
of  scholarship — this  perpetual  stream  of  hyperbole  poured 
out  in  praise  of  ancient  greatness.  How  long  such  habitual 
misrepresentation  is  to  be  tolerated,  I  know  not ;  but  it  may 
well  become  a  matter  of  serious  consideration  with  reflecting 
and  influential  men,  whether  the  game  should  any  longer  be 
permitted,  and  whether  truth  and  reason  must  forever  bow 
their  head  to  system. 


APPENDIX.  135 


EXTRACTS. 


The  following  is  the  extract  referred  to  at  page  5,  taken 
from  a  piece  in  the  Boston  Palladium,  of  Feb.  17,  signed  No 
Innovator.  In  allusion  to  the  essays  in  the  Centinel,  publish- 
ed some  time  before,  the  writer  alleges  the  want  of  leisure  as 
a  reason  for  not  answering  them  himself,  and  then  makes  an 
appeal  to  scholars  in  general,  as  follows  : — 

"But  allow  me  to  ask,  if  all  who  range  themselves  on  the 
side  of  learning  can  plead  so  good  an  excuse.  Have  we  not 
a  host  of  men,  distinguished  alike  for  talents  and  acquire- 
ments, to  whom  the  subject  is  already  familiar  in  all  its  rami- 
fications— men  who  are  acute  reasoners  and  polished  writ- 
ers?— Have  we  not  also  a  numerous  train  of  scholars,  whose 
very  office  as  Professors  and  Teachers,  places  them  directly 
in  the  post  of  honour,  and  at  the  same  time  qualifies  them  in  a 
peculiar  manner  to  vindicate  the  cause  of  ancient  literature  ? 
— Have  we  not,  in  addition,  yet  another  set  of  literary  men, 
delegated  expressly  to  watch  over  the  concerns  of  education, 
and  actually  superintending  those  municipal  institutions,  the 
utility  of  which  is  now  called  in  question  ?  And  is  it  not  clear- 
ly the  duty  of  all  such  men,  as  unquestionably  it  is  the  inter- 
est of  many  of  them,  to  repel  every  attack  of  that  nature  ? 
Having  among  us  so  numerous  and  such  able  advocates  of 
existing  estalishments,  it  cannot  but  appear  to  the  more  hum- 
ble votaries  of  Classical  Learning  a  circumstance  no  less  sur- 
prising than  mortifying,  that  doctrines  should  be  permitted  to 
circulate,  aiming  at  a  total  change  of  system,  without  the 
slightest  attempt  to  arrest  their  progress.  Not  a  voice  has 
been  raised,  I  am  ashamed  to  say,  to  justify  a  course  of  tui- 
tion, which,  if  those  doctrines  were  really  true,  it  would  indeed 
be  idle  to  defend,  and  worse  than  idle  to  practice.  How  is 
this  apathy  to  be  accounted  for?  Why  so  much  shyness, 
.why  all  this  silence  ?  Do  our  patrons  of  learning  flatter  them- 
selves that  because  the  essays  in  question  are  prolix,  dry  and 
argumentative,  they  have  been  little  read,  and  can  therefore 
do  but  little  harm  ?  In  this  I  fear  they  are  deceived.  But 
suppose  they  are  right,  is  there  not  a  point  of  honour  in  the 
case ;  and  shall  we  shrink  from  any  inquiry  professing  to  be 
a  fair  appeal  to  reason?" 


136  APPENDIX. 

Extracts  referred  to  at  page  7. 

The  following  is  from  an  article  on  education  in  the  West- 
minster Review,  No.  1 . 

"  When  the  plan  was  first  instituted,  (the  existing  plan  of 
classical  education  in  England)  there  was  some  reason  for  it. 
— At  that  period,  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  contained  all 
the  knowledge  which  the  observation  and  experience  of  man- 
kind had  yet  accumulated.  Of  science,  properly  so  called, 
nothing  was  known  and  therefore  nothing  could  be  taught. 
At  any  rate  the  little  that  existed  was  to  be  found  in  ancient  lan- 
guages ;  and  churchmen  were  the  only  persons  in  the  com- 
munity who  had  the  least  pretensions  to  learning.  But  that 
this  plan  should  be  continued  in  the  present  age,  when  Greek 
and  Latin  do  not  contain  the  thousandth  part  of  the  informa- 
tion which  ought  to  be  communicated,  whether  its  importance 
be  estimated  by  extent  or  value,  is  sufficiently  extraordinary. 
Yet  hitherto  there  has  been  no  medium  between  studying  lan- 
guage as  the  principal  object  of  education,  and  as  part  of  the 
course  calculated  only  for  the  learned  professions,  and  receiv- 
ing no  education  at  all.  No  plan  of  instruction  has  been 
adopted  for  those  who  are  to  be  engaged  in  the  active  busi- 
ness of  life.  A  gentleman  who  might  happen  to  have  no  de- 
sire to  be  a  scholar  must  have  gone  without  any  instruction 
whatever ;  and  the  merchant  to  whom  it  might  not  have  been 
convenient  to  wade  through  "tremendous  Lilly"  has  been 
doomed  to  enter  the  counting  house  with  little  acquaintance 
with  the  treasures  of  knowledge.  It  is  no  less  true  than  la- 
mentable, that  hitherto  the  education  proper  for  civil  and  ac- 
tive life  has  been  neglected ;  that  nothing  has  been  done  to 
enable  those  who  are  actually  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the 
world,  to  carry  them  on  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  age  and 
the  country  in  which  they  live,  by  communicating  to  them  the 
knowledge  and  the  spirit  of  their  age  and  country— that  there 
has  been  no  access  by  any  man  to  the  temple  of  science  but 
through  the  gate  of  language,  and  that  the  only  key  to  it  has 
been  the  Westminster  and  Eton  grammars."  p.  45. 

The  writer  then  goes  into  the  inquiry,  what  are  the  proper 
studies  for  the  middle  class  of  society,  by  which  phrase  he  ex- 
plains himself  to  mean,  as  we  shall  see,  all  the  intelligent  class- 
es with  the  exception  of  professional  men  and  statesmen — and 
he  unfolds  his  views  as  follows: — 

"  Of  the  political  and  moral  importance  of  this  class,  there 
can  be  but  one  opinion — It  is  the  strength  of  the  community 


APPENDIX.  137 

— It  contains  beyond  comparison  the  greatest  proportion  of 
the  intelligence,  industry  and  wealth  of  the  state — In  it  are 
the  heads  that  invent  and  the  hands  that  execute — the  enter- 
prise that  projects,  and  the  capital  by  which  these  projects 
are  carried  into  operation.  The  merchant,  the  manufacturer, 
the  mechanic,  the  chemist,  the  artist,  those  who  discover  new 
arts  and  those  who  perfect  old  ones,  those  who  extend  science 
— the  men  in  fact  who  think  for  the  rest  of  the  world  and  who 
do  the  business  of  the  world,  are  all  of  this  class.  The  pro- 
per education  of  this  portion  of  the  people  is  therefore  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  welfare  of  the  state.  Considering 
then  their  station  and  the  nature  of  their  pursuits,  what  is  the 
kind  of  knowledge  the  most  desirable  to  communicate  to 
them — what  are  the  subjects,  an  acquaintance  with  which 
will  afford  the  most  assistance  in  their  occupations  and  the 
greatest  enjoyments  in  their  hours  of  leisure?  We  answer 
decidedly  not  an  acquaintance  with  languages  of  antiquity." 

The  writer  then  enters  on  some  considerations  of  little  ap- 
plication to  any  country  but  England,  and  returns  to  gene- 
ral remarks  on  the  languages  as  follows — "  They  have 
nothing  in  common  with  the  business  of  the  world  as  it  is  now 
transacted — they  do  not  form  the  topic  of  conversation  in  so- 
ciety— they  are  obsolete — they  have  no  longer  a  habitation 
and  a  name,  except  in  some  degree  in  literature — and  they 
possess  no  power  of  developing  the  faculties  which  is  not  at 
least  equalled  by  other  branches  of  learning.  As  we  have 
already  said,  there  can  be  no  reason  why  there  should  not 
be  profound  scholars,  as  well  as  subtle  pleaders  and  learned 
theologians — but  nothing  can  equal  the  absurdity  of  consum- 
ing three  fourths  of  the  invaluable  time  appropriated  to  edu- 
cation, in  scraping  together  (as  Milton  expresses  it)  so  much 
miserable  Greek  and  Latin,  by  persons  to  whom  it  is  no  man- 
ner of  use — to  whose  pursuits  it  bears  no  kind  of  relation — 
who  after  all,  acquire  it  so  imperfectly  as  to  derive  no  plea- 
sure from  it — who  invariably  neglect  it  as  soon  as  released 
from  school,  and  in  the  lapse  of  a  few  years  allow  every  trace 
of  it  to  be  obliterated  from  their  memory." 

The  English  Monthly  Magazine  for  March,  in  noticing  the 
above  mentioned  article  in  the  Westminster  Review,  remarks 
as  follows  in  relation  to  the  middling  classes. 

"  In  our  opinion  *not  only  have  they  no  occasion  for 
such  an  education,  (the  classical)  but  it  would  be  detris 
18 


138  APPENDIX, 

mental  to  their  future  happiness,  because  obstructive  to  their 
manual  or  mercantile  pursuits,  by  creating  a  taste  for  what 
those  pursuits  would  not  permit  them  to  cultivate.  This  re- 
flection brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  Reviewer's  opin- 
ion— that  Greek  and  Latin,  though  not  destitute  of  value, 
are  far  from  being  even  to  the  higher  classes,  of  that  impor- 
tance they  have  so  long  been  allowed  to  assume.  The  Review- 
er would  have  their  cultivation  limited  to  boys  designed  for 
the  learned  professions ;  and  when  we  reflect  on  the  time 
necessary  to  their  acquirement,  we  are  strongly  disposed 
to  think  with  him.  If  the  almost  incalculable  number  of  hours 
devoted  to  this  study,  be  compared  with  the  few  in  which 
such  acquisitions  may  be  afterwards  enjoyed — if  it  be  consi- 
dered that  now  almost  every  information  (why  not  every)  that 
can  be  obtained  through  the  medium  of  the  dead  languages, 
may  be  collected  from  the  stores  of  the  living — that  all  the 
scientific  intelligence  of  the  ancients  has  been  communicated 
to  the  moderns  in  their  mother  tongue ;  and  that  almost  all  the 
noble  discoveries  both  in  science  and  philosophy  with  which 
literature  has  been  enriched  by  modern  genius  and  modern, 
research,  is  to  be  found  in  modern  tongues  only — when,  we  re- 
peat, these  important  facts  are  duly  weighed,  we  are  far  from 
feeling  assured  that  ancient  tongues  are  worth  all  the  toil  and 
time  their  cultivation  demands." 

The  following  is  from  a  late  French  treatise  on  Education. 

"  It  results  from  what  has  been  said,  that  children  should 
never  be  permitted  to  learn  words  while  ignorant  of  their 
meaning.  Let  us  abandon  this  practice  of  getting  things  by 
heart,  without  attaching  any  ideas  to  them — let  us  accustom 
our  children  to  think,  instead  of  pronouncing  empty  sounds. 
Rousseau  was  right  in  prohibiting  his  Emile  from  committing 
much  to  memory.  The  great  portion  of  time  ought  to  be  em- 
ployed in  acquiring  ideas,  and  a  small  part  only  in  learning 
the  signs  to  express  them.  I  should  prefer  a  child  to  have 
ten  ideas,  though  capable  of  explaining  them  but  in  one  lan- 
guage, rather  than  one  idea,  with  the  power  of  expressing  it 
in  ten  different  dialects.  It  is  evident  that  education  ought 
not  to  have  for  its  principal  object  the  study  of  words,  espe- 
cially in  a  language  not  to  be  used  in  after  years — certainly 
practical  knowledge  is  much  better  than  any  assemblage  of 
phrases.  It  is  said  that  the  genius  of  the  ancient  languages  is 
superior  to  modern.  Admitting  this,  yet  I  do  not  perceive 
that  Frenchmen,  who   have  learned   Latin  and  Greek,  write 


APPENDIX.  139 

any  better  on  that  account.  It  often  happens  that  the  most 
skilful  interpreters  of  Greek  and  Latin,  are  surpassed  in  gen- 
eral intelligence,  and  left  far  behind  in  the  affairs  of  life,  by 
those  who  were  much  their  inferiors  at  school.  A  mass  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  however  great,  and  however  painfully  ac- 
quired, can  give  no  facility,  nor  any  habit  of  attention  or  re- 
flection, nor  any  ability  to  distinguish  oneself  either  as  a 
statesman,  a  general,  a  physician,  or  an  advocate.  On  the 
contrary,  such  studies  render  the  mind  dull  and  sluggish. 
Formerly,  when  works  of  science  were  chiefly  written  in 
Latin,  a  knowledge  of  it  was  necessary  to  the  learned  profes- 
sions ;  but  now  the  case  is  very  different ;  and  it  is  altogether 
a  mistaken  respect  for  ancient  usage  that  continues  in  use  the 
same  course  of  studies.  We  say  of  one  that  he  understands 
Latin,  that  he  has  had  a  liberal  education — but  is  it  wise  to 
rest  our  opinion  of  his  merit  merely  on  that  foundation." 

The  following  remarks  are  from  a  pamphlet  printed  in  the 
State  of  New- York,  on  the  project  of  establishing  a  college  at 
Geneva,  in  that  State  ;  and  they  will  serve  to  show  that  opin- 
ions are  by  no  means  so  universally  in  favor  of  the  languages 
as  some  would  have  us  believe. 

"Our  collegiate  institutions  have  been  heretofore  establish- 
ed with  the  design  of  preparing  young  men  for  the  learned 
professions.  Their  course  of  discipline  and  instruction  has 
this  object  chiefly,  and  perhaps  solely,  in  view.  So  obvious- 
ly is  this  the  case,  that  a  young  man,  who  after  leaving  col- 
lege, turns  his  attention  to  merchandize  or  farming,  is  consid- 
ered in  a  great  measure  as  having  lost  four  years  of  his  time 
(he  might  have  said  8  years)  at  the  most  important  period  of 
his  life.  Part  and  a  very  considerable  part  of  his  studies, 
has  no  important  bearing  on  his  profession,  and  the  habits  he 
acquires  in  college  are  in  general  not  favourable  to  his  future 
pursuits.  All  the  advantages  he  obtains  of  literary  and  sci- 
entific information,  might  be  gained  under  another  system, 
much  more  efficaciously,  and  at  far  less  expence  of  time. 
The  proposed  institution  will  supply  this  desideratum." 

In  the  British  Critic  of  March  last,  is  a  review  of  Dunlop's 
history  of  Roman  literature.  The  following  observations, 
both  of  the  reviewer  and  the  historian,  will  show  us  that  men's 
eyes  are  beginning  to  open  a  little  as  to  the  true  character  and 
the  concerns  of  the  Romans. 

"  The  singular  destinies  (says  the  reviewer)  of  this  aston- 
ishing people  might  be  supposed  to  give  to  their  literature  an 


140  APPENDIX. 

interest  the  most  exalted  and  intense.      It  is  however,  a  re- 
markable fact,   that  the  literary  history  of  Rome  is  of  all  others 
the  most  deficient  in  those  qualifications  which  would  render  its 
study  interesting  to  the  philosophic  mind  ;    and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Juvenal,  and  Horace,  Rome   has   scarcely  a  writer 
from  whom  any  thing  can  be  collected,  concerning  the  private 
life  and  feelings  of  the  Romans."      As  to  Mr.  Dunlop's  idea 
of  that  classic  people,  it  may  be  gathered  from  the  following 
quotations.      "  On  the  whole  (says  he)  they  were  an  austere, 
stately,  and  formal  people — their  whole  mode  of  life  tended  to 
harden  the  heart  and  the  feelings,  and  there  was  a  rigid  uni- 
formity in  their  early  manners  ill  adapted  to  the  free  work- 
ing of  the  passions."     "  They  had  by  degrees  been  accustom- 
ed to  take  a  barbarous  delight  in  the  most  wanton  displays  of 
human  violence  and  brutality.      Lions  and  Elephants  tore 
each  other  to  pieces  before  their  eyes  ;  and  they  beheld,  with 
emotions  only  of  delight,  crowds  of  hireling  gladiators  wast- 
ing their  energy,  valour,  and  life,  on  the  guilty  arena  of  the 
circus."      "  The  language  of  the  Romans,  however  excellent 
in  other  respects,  was  but  ill  suited  to  the  free  expression  of 
feeling.       Little  attention,  besides,  was  paid  to  critical  learning, 
and  the  cultivation  of  correct  composition.     Even  so  late  as  the 
time  of  Horace,  the  tragic  drama  continued  to  be  unsuccess- 
ful in  consequence  of  the  illiberal  education  of  the  Roman 
youth."      The  reviewer   after  giving  these  extracts  and  sev- 
eral others,  adds  thus,  "  These  several  causes  are  enlarged 
upon  by  Mr.  Dunlop,  with  great  ability ;  and  to  these  he  adds 
the  misdirected  influence  of  the  Greek  literature,  which  in- 
deed is  the  great  and  fertile  source,  to  which  all  those  departures 
from  just  taste,  truth,  and  nature,  xvhich  characterise  the  writings 
of  the  Romans,  are  ultimately  referable." 

Now  here  we  have  the  sentiments  of  a  learned  writer, 
who  has  undertaken  to  investigate  philosophically  the  charac- 
ter as  well  as  the  history,  of  Roman  literature — we  have  the 
sentiments  also  of  a  professed  English  critic  on  the  same  sub- 
ject— and  what  is  more,  we  have  their  honest  sentiments. 


FINIS. 


/ 
J 


December. — This  publication,  though  commenced  and  in 
part  struck  off  at  the  date  mentioned  on  the  title  page,  was 
interrupted  by  circumstances,  which,  being  of  no  interest  to 
the  reader,  are  here  alluded  to  merely  by  way  of  apology 
for  rather  an  unusual  number  of  typographical  errors — 
And  those  errors  being  of  such  a  nature  as  sometimes  to  ob- 
scure the  sense,  and  sometimes  destroy  it,  the  purchaser 
would  perhaps  do  well  to  correct  them  with  his  pen  accord- 
ing to  the  following  list,  which  embraces  all  that  have  been 
detected  : 

Page  3  line  21  for  invariable,  read  invariably. 

„  8  last  line  for  them  read  than. 

„  19  line  32  for  effects  read  effect. 

„  46  line  27  for  languages  read  language. 

„  49  line  9  for  influence  read  inference. 

„  56  line  1 6  for  had  read  bad. 

„  75  line  6  for  leave  read  learn. 

„  76  line  34  for  the  find  read  find  the. 

„  79  line  28  for  to  read  too. 

„  94  line  3  for  a  field  read  field. 


JNI"ERP       Y  "e  C 


DIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

1X)S  ANGELES 
LIBRARY 


BU-,  0,  ,4«m 


2 


J  ALT         | 

E  ORROWERS 


01.ATING 


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LiBR/   V  USE 
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sv 


